[1] Sun X-Y, Ju X-C, Li Y, Zeng P-M, Wu J, Zhou Y-Y, Shen L-B, Dong J, Chen Y-J and Luo Z-G 2022 Generation of vascularized brain organoids to study neurovascular interactions eLife 11 e76707

[2] Lee S W, Lee K J, Jeong S Y, Joo C H, Lee H and Jeong G S 2020 Evaluation of bystander infection of oncolytic virus using a medium flow integrated 3D in vitro microphysiological system Adv. Biosyst. 4 1900143

[3] El-Sheikh A, Borgstrom P, Bhattacharjee G, Belting M and Edgington T S 2005 A selective tumor microvasculature thrombogen that targets a novel receptor complex in the tumor angiogenic microenvironment Cancer Res. 65 11109–17

[4] Castagnola V et al 2023 Interactions of graphene oxide and few-layer graphene with the blood-brain barrier Nano Lett. 23 2981–90

[5] Paek J et al 2019 Microphysiological engineering of self-assembled and perfusable microvascular beds for the production of vascularized three-dimensional human microtissues ACS Nano 13 7627–43

[6] Shang M L, Soon R H, Lim C T, Khoo B L and Han J 2019 Microfluidic modelling of the tumor microenvironment for anti-cancer drug development Lab Chip 19 369–86

[7] Haase K, Offeddu G S, Gillrie M R and Kamm R D 2020 Endothelial regulation of drug transport in a 3D vascularized tumor model Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 2002444

[8] Sun S J, Jin L, Zheng Y and Zhu J 2022 Modeling human HSV infection via a vascularized immune-competent skin-on-chip platform Nat. Commun. 13 5481

[9] Kugeratski F G, Santi A and Zanivan S 2022 Extracellular vesicles as central regulators of blood vessel function in cancer Sci. Signal. 15 eaaz4742

[10] Palikuqi B et al 2020 Adaptable haemodynamic endothelial cells for organogenesis and tumorigenesis Nature 585 426–32

[11] Kang J H, Jang M, Seo S J, Choi A, Shin D, Seo S, Lee S H and Kim H N 2023 Mechanobiological adaptation to hyperosmolarity enhances barrier function in human vascular microphysiological system Adv. Sci. 10 2206384

[12] Rajasekar S, Lin D S Y, Abdul L, Liu A, Sotra A, Zhang F and Zhang B Y 2020 IFlowPlate-a customized 384-well plate for the culture of perfusable vascularized colon organoids Adv. Mater. 32 2002974

[13] Silvestri V L, Henriet E, Linville R M, Wong A D, Searson P C and Ewald A J 2020 A tissue-engineered 3D microvessel model reveals the dynamics of mosaic vessel formation in breast cancer Cancer Res. 80 4288–301

[14] McDonald D M and Choyke P L 2003 Imaging of angiogenesis: from microscope to clinic Nat. Med. 9 713–25

[15] Cui K L, Chen T W, Zhu Y J, Shi Y, Guo Y Q and Qin J H 2023 Engineering placenta-like organoids containing endogenous vascular cells from human-induced pluripotent stem cells Bioeng. Transl. Med. 8 e10390

[16] Morikawa S, Baluk P, Kaidoh T, Haskell A, Jain R K and McDonald D M 2002 Abnormalities in pericytes on blood vessels and endothelial sprouts in tumors Am. J. Pathol. 160 985–1000

[17] Kalluri R 2003 Basement membranes: structure, assembly and role in tumour angiogenesis Nat. Rev. Cancer 3 422–33

[18] Nashimoto Y, Okada R, Hanada S, Arima Y, Nishiyama K, Miura T and Yokokawa R 2020 Vascularized cancer on a chip: the effect of perfusion on growth and drug delivery of tumor spheroid Biomaterials 229 119547

[19] d’Esposito A et al 2018 Computational fluid dynamics with imaging of cleared tissue and of in vivo perfusion predicts drug uptake and treatment responses in tumours Nat. Biomed. Eng. 2 773–87

[20] Cao X, Ashfaq R, Cheng F, Maharjan S, Li J, Ying G L, Hassan S, Xiao H Y, Yue K and Zhang Y S 2019 A tumor-on-a-chip system with bioprinted blood and lymphatic vessel pair Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1807173

[21] Yi H-G et al 2019 A bioprinted human-glioblastoma-on-a-chip for the identification of patient-specific responses to chemoradiotherapy Nat. Biomed. Eng. 3 509–19

[22] Liang Q L et al 2019 The softness of tumour-cell-derived microparticles regulates their drug-delivery efficiency Nat. Biomed. Eng. 3 729–40

[23] Kankala R K, Zhao J, Liu C-G, Song X-J, Yang D-Y, Zhu K, Wang S-B, Zhang Y S and Chen A-Z 2019 Highly porous microcarriers for minimally invasive in situ skeletal muscle cell delivery Small 15 1901397

[24] Kim E M, Lee Y B, Kim S-J, Park J, Lee J, Kim S W, Park H and Shin H 2019 Fabrication of core-shell spheroids as building blocks for engineering 3D complex vascularized tissue Acta Biomater. 100 158–72

[25] Nguyen E H et al 2017 Versatile synthetic alternatives to Matrigel for vascular toxicity screening and stem cell expansion Nat. Biomed. Eng. 1 0096

[26] Shao L, Gao Q, Xie C Q, Fu J Z, Xiang M X and He Y 2020 Synchronous 3D bioprinting of large-scale cell-laden constructs with nutrient networks Adv. Healthcare Mater. 9 1901142

[27] Lai B F L, Lu R X Z, Huyer L D, Kakinoki S, Yazbeck J, Wang E Y, Wu Q H, Zhang B Y and Radisic M 2021 A well plate-based multiplexed platform for incorporation of organoids into an organ-on-a-chip system with a perfusable vasculature Nat. Protocols 16 2158–89

[28] Miller J S et al 2012 Rapid casting of patterned vascular networks for perfusable engineered three-dimensional tissues Nat. Mater. 11 768–74

[29] Grigoryan B et al 2019 Multivascular networks and functional intravascular topologies within biocompatible hydrogels Science 364 458–64

[30] Liang Y K et al 2022 CD146 increases stemness and aggressiveness in glioblastoma and activates YAP signaling Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 79 398

[31] Sebrell T A, Sidar B, Bruns R, Wilkinson R A, Wiedenheft B, Taylor P J, Perrino B A, Samuelson L C, Wilking J N and Bimczok D 2018 Live imaging analysis of human gastric epithelial spheroids reveals spontaneous rupture, rotation and fusion events Cell Tissue Res. 371 293–307

[32] Mao M, Bei H P, Lam C H, Chen P Y, Wang S Q, Chen Y, He J K and Zhao X 2020 Human-on-leaf-chip: a biomimetic vascular system integrated with chamber-specific organs Small 16 2000546

[33] Norotte C, Marga F S, Niklason L E and Forgacs G 2009 Scaffold-free vascular tissue engineering using bioprinting Biomaterials 30 5910–7

[34] Hemeryck L, Hermans F, Chappell J, Kobayashi H, Lambrechts D, Lambrichts I, Bronckaers A and Vankelecom H 2022 Organoids from human tooth showing epithelial stemness phenotype and differentiation potential Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 79 153

[35] Eichmüller O L and Knoblich J A 2022 Human cerebral organoids—a new tool for clinical neurology research Nat. Rev. Neurol. 18 661–80

[36] Son J, Park S J, Ha T, Lee S-N, Cho H-Y and Choi J-W 2022 Electrophysiological monitoring of neurochemical-based neural signal transmission in a human brain-spinal cord assembloid ACS Sens. 7 409–14

[37] Rawlings T M et al 2021 Modelling the impact of decidual senescence on embryo implantation in human endometrial assembloids eLife 10 e69603

[38] Rickner H D et al 2022 Single cell transcriptomic profiling of a neuron-astrocyte assembloid tauopathy model Nat. Commun. 13 6275

[39] Samarasinghe R A et al 2021 Identification of neural oscillations and epileptiform changes in human brain organoids Nat. Neurosci. 24 1488–500

[40] Wei D-X, Dao J-W and Chen G-Q 2018 A micro-ark for cells: highly open porous polyhydroxyalkanoate microspheres as injectable scaffolds for tissue regeneration Adv. Mater. 30 1802273

[41] Jiang S M, Lyu C, Zhao P, Li W J, Kong W Y, Huang C Y, Genin G M and Du Y N 2019 Cryoprotectant enables structural control of porous scaffolds for exploration of cellular mechano-responsiveness in 3D Nat. Commun. 10 3491

[42] Lin X-F, Kankala R K, Tang N, Xu P-Y, Hao L-Z, Yang D-Y, Wang S-B, Zhang Y S and Chen A-Z 2019 Supercritical fluid-assisted porous microspheres for efficient delivery of insulin and inhalation therapy of diabetes Adv. Healthcare Mater. 8 1800910

[43] Wang Y, Hu X, Kankala R K, Yang D-Y, Zhu K, Wang S-B, Zhang Y S and Chen A-Z 2020 Endothelialized microrods for minimally invasive in situ neovascularization Biofabrication 12 015011

[44] Giandomenico S L, Sutcliffe M and Lancaster M A 2021 Generation and long-term culture of advanced cerebral organoids for studying later stages of neural development Nat. Protocols 16 579–602

[45] Polonchuk L et al 2021 Towards engineering heart tissues from bioprinted cardiac spheroids Biofabrication 13 045009

[46] Kim J, Inagaki T, Sunaga J, Adachi T and Matsumoto T 2022 Effect of chemically induced osteogenesis supplements on multicellular behavior of osteocytic spheroids Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 622 79–85

[47] Todhunter M E, Jee N Y, Hughes A J, Coyle M C, Cerchiari A, Farlow J, Garbe J C, Labarge M A, Desai T A and Gartner Z J 2015 Programmed synthesis of three-dimensional tissues Nat. Methods 12 975–81

[48] Toda S, Blauch L R, Tang S K Y, Morsut L and Lim W A 2018 Programming self-organizing multicellular structures with synthetic cell-cell signaling Science 361 156–62

[49] Li Y W, Chen P, Wang Y C, Yan S Q, Feng X J, Du W, Koehler S A, Demirci U and Liu B-F 2016 Rapid assembly of heterogeneous 3D cell microenvironments in a microgel array Adv. Mater. 28 3543–8

[50] Park S E, Kang S, Paek J, Georgescu A, Chang J, Yi A Y, Wilkins B J, Karakasheva T A, Hamilton K E and Huh D D 2022 Geometric engineering of organoid culture for enhanced organogenesis in a dish Nat. Methods 19 1449–60

[51] Watanabe F, Schoeffler A, Fair S R, Hester M E, Fedorko J and Imitola J 2021 Generation of neurosphere-derived organoid-like-aggregates (NEDAS) from neural stem cells Curr. Protocols 1 e15

[52] Lawlor K T et al 2021 Cellular extrusion bioprinting improves kidney organoid reproducibility and conformation Nat. Mater. 20 260–71

[53] Nguyen T L, Cha B G, Choi Y, Im J and Kim J 2020 Injectable dual-scale mesoporous silica cancer vaccine enabling efficient delivery of antigen/adjuvant-loaded nanoparticles to dendritic cells recruited in local macroporous scaffold Biomaterials 239 119859

[54] Kim H Y, An B S, Kim M J, Jeoung Y J, Byun J-H, Lee J H and Oh S H 2020 Signaling molecule-immobilized porous particles with a leaf-stacked structure as a bioactive filler system ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 6 2231–9

[55] Seliktar D 2012 Designing cell-compatible hydrogels for biomedical applications Science 336 1124–8

[56] Tenreiro M F, Branco M A, Cotovio J P, Cabral J M S, Fernandes T G and Diogo M M 2023 Advancing organoid design through co-emergence, assembly, and bioengineering Trends Biotechnol. 41 923–38

[57] Marton R M and Pas, ca S P 2020 Organoid and assembloid technologies for investigating cellular crosstalk in human brain development and disease Trends Cell Biol. 30 133–43

[58] Crispim J F and Ito K 2021 De novo neo-hyaline-cartilage from bovine organoids in viscoelastic hydrogels Acta Biomater. 128 236–49

[59] Eggermont L J, Rogers Z J, Colombani T, Memic A and Bencherif S A 2020 Injectable cryogels for biomedical applications Trends Biotechnol. 38 418–31

[60] Daly A C, Riley L, Segura T and Burdick J A 2020 Hydrogel microparticles for biomedical applications Nat. Rev. Mater. 5 20–43

[61] Simunovic M, Siggia E D and Brivanlou A H 2022 In vitro attachment and symmetry breaking of a human embryo model assembled from primed embryonic stem cells Cell Stem Cell 29 962–72.e4

[62] Wang Y, Kankala R K, Zhang J T, Hao L Z, Zhu K, Wang S B, Zhang Y S and Chen A Z 2020 Modeling endothelialized hepatic tumor microtissues for drug screening Adv. Sci. 7 2002002

[63] Cui H J, Wang X X, Wesslowski J, Tronser T, Rosenbauer J, Schug A, Davidson G, Popova A A and Levkin P A 2021 Assembly of multi-spheroid cellular architectures by programmable droplet merging Adv. Mater. 33 2006434

[64] Qazi T H, Wu J Y, Muir V G, Weintraub S, Gullbrand S E, Lee D, Issadore D and Burdick J A 2022 Anisotropic rod-shaped particles influence injectable granular hydrogel properties and cell invasion Adv. Mater. 34 2109194

[65] Xu Y F, Qi R Z, Zhu H J, Li B, Shen Y, Krainer G, Klenerman D and Knowles T P J 2021 Liquid-liquid phase-separated systems from reversible gel-sol transition of protein microgels Adv. Mater. 33 2008670

[66] Zhu Y J, Zhang X X, Sun L Y, Wang Y and Zhao Y J 2023 Engineering human brain assembloids by microfluidics Adv. Mater. 35 2210083

[67] Burdis R, Chariyev-Prinz F, Browe D C, Freeman F E, Nulty J, McDonnell E E, Eichholz K F, Wang B, Brama P and Kelly D J 2022 Spatial patterning of phenotypically distinct microtissues to engineer osteochondral grafts for biological joint resurfacing Biomaterials 289 121750

[68] Heidari-Khoei H, Esfandiari F, Moini A, Yari S, Saber M, Novin M G, Piryaei A and Baharvand H 2022 Derivation of hormone-responsive human endometrial organoids and stromal cells from cryopreserved biopsies Exp. Cell Res. 417 113205

[69] Rawlings T M, Makwana K, Tryfonos M and Lucas E S 2021 Organoids to model the endometrium: implantation and beyond Reprod. Fertil. 2 R85–R101

[70] Makrygianni E A and Chrousos G P 2021 From brain organoids to networking assembloids: implications for neuroendocrinology and stress medicine Front. Physiol. 12 621970

[71] Pas, ca S P et al 2022 A nomenclature consensus for nervous system organoids and assembloids Nature 609 907–10

[72] Xin S J, Chimene D, Garza J E, Gaharwar A K and Alge D L 2019 Clickable PEG hydrogel microspheres as building blocks for 3D bioprinting Biomater. Sci. 7 1179–87

[73] Sun W Y, Zhang J H, Qin Y C, Tang H, Chen Y, Lin W K, She Y L, Zhang K X, Yin J B and Chen C 2022 A simple and efficient strategy for preparing a cell-spheroid-based bioink Adv. Healthcare Mater. 11 2200648

[74] Ayan B, Heo D N, Zhang Z F, Dey M, Povilianskas A, Drapaca C and Ozbolat I T 2020 Aspiration-assisted bioprinting for precise positioning of biologics Sci. Adv. 6 eaaw5111

[75] Chen P, Güven S, Usta O B, Yarmush M L and Demirci U 2015 Biotunable acoustic node assembly of organoids Adv. Healthcare Mater. 4 1937–43

[76] Ao Z, Cai H W, Wu Z H, Ott J, Wang H L, Mackie K and Guo F 2021 Controllable fusion of human brain organoids using acoustofluidics Lab Chip 21 688–99

[77] Goranci-Buzhala G, Mariappan A, Gabriel E, Ramani A, Ricci-Vitiani L, Buccarelli M, D’Alessandris Q G, Pallini R and Gopalakrishnan J 2020 Rapid and efficient invasion assay of glioblastoma in human brain organoids Cell Rep. 31 107738

[78] Xiang Y F et al 2019 hESC-derived thalamic organoids form reciprocal projections when fused with cortical organoids Cell Stem Cell 24 487–97.e7

[79] Miura Y et al 2020 Generation of human striatal organoids and cortico-striatal assembloids from human pluripotent stem cells Nat. Biotechnol. 38 1421–30

[80] Bagley J A, Reumann D, Bian S, Lévi-Strauss J and Knoblich J A 2017 Fused cerebral organoids model interactions between brain regions Nat. Methods 14 743–51

[81] Bajaj S, Bagley J A, Sommer C, Vertesy A, Wong S N, Krenn V, Lévi-Strauss J and Knoblich J A 2021 Neurotransmitter signaling regulates distinct phases of multimodal human interneuron migration EMBO J. 40 e108714

[82] Xiang Y F et al 2017 Fusion of regionally specified hPSC-derived organoids models human brain development and interneuron migration Cell Stem Cell 21 383–98.e7

[83] Kim H, Xu R J, Padmashri R, Dunaevsky A, Liu Y, Dreyfus C F and Jiang P 2019 Pluripotent stem cell-derived cerebral organoids reveal human oligodendrogenesis with dorsal and ventral origins Stem Cell Rep. 12 890–905

[84] Fernando M et al 2022 Differentiation of brain and retinal organoids from confluent cultures of pluripotent stem cells connected by nerve-like axonal projections of optic origin Stem Cell Rep. 17 1476–92

[85] Fligor C M, Lavekar S S, Harkin J, Shields P K, VanderWall K B, Huang K-C, Gomes C and Meyer J S 2021 Extension of retinofugal projections in an assembled model of human pluripotent stem cell-derived organoids Stem Cell Rep. 16 2228–41

[86] Andersen J et al 2020 Generation of functional human 3D cortico-motor assembloids Cell 183 1913–29.e26

[87] Liu Y et al 2021 Bio-assembling macro-scale, lumenized airway tubes of defined shape via multi-organoid patterning and fusion Adv. Sci. 8 2003332

[88] Brassard J A, Nikolaev M, Hübscher T, Hofer M and Lutolf M P 2021 Recapitulating macro-scale tissue self-organization through organoid bioprinting Nat. Mater. 20 22–29

[89] Fang Y C et al 2023 Expanding embedded 3D bioprinting capability for engineering complex organs with freeform vascular networks Adv. Mater. 35 2205082

[90] Liu Y et al 2022 Engineered meatballs via scalable skeletal muscle cell expansion and modular micro-tissue assembly using porous gelatin micro-carriers Biomaterials 287 121615

[91] Fedorchak N J, Iyer N and Ashton R S 2021 Bioengineering tissue morphogenesis and function in human neural organoids Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 111 52–59

[92] Xu J, Wen Z X and Li X 2021 Brain organoids: studying human brain development and diseases in a dish Stem Cells Int. 2021 5902824

[93] Rivron N C, Vrij E J, Rouwkema J, Le Gac S, van den Berg A, Truckenmuller R K and van Blitterswijk C A 2012 Tissue deformation spatially modulates VEGF signaling and angiogenesis Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109 6886–91

[94] Munarin F, Kant R J, Rupert C E, Khoo A and Coulombe K L K 2020 Engineered human myocardium with local release of angiogenic proteins improves vascularization and cardiac function in injured rat hearts Biomaterials 251 120033

[95] Carvalho D T O, Feij?ao T, Neves M I, da Silva R M P and Barrias C C 2021 Directed self-assembly of spheroids into modular vascular beds for engineering large tissue constructs Biofabrication 13 035008

[96] Rodoplu D, Matahum J S and Hsu C-H 2022 A microfluidic hanging drop-based spheroid co-culture platform for probing tumor angiogenesis Lab Chip 22 1275–85

[97] Laschke M W and Menger M D 2017 Life is 3D: boosting spheroid function for tissue engineering Trends Biotechnol. 35 133–44

[98] Bustamante D J, Basile E J, Hildreth B M, Browning N W, Jensen S A, Moldovan L, Petrache H I and Moldovan N I 2021 Biofabrication of spheroids fusion-based tumor models: computational simulation of glucose effects Biofabrication 13 035010

[99] Hof L et al 2021 Long-term live imaging and multiscale analysis identify heterogeneity and core principles of epithelial organoid morphogenesis BMC Biol. 19 37

[100] Kakni P, Truckenmüller R, Habibovi′c P and Giselbrecht S 2022 Challenges to, and prospects for, reverse engineering the gastrointestinal tract using organoids Trends Biotechnol. 40 932–44

[101] Dailamy A, Parekh U, Katrekar D, Kumar A, McDonald D, Moreno A, Bagheri P, Ng T N and Mali P 2021 Programmatic introduction of parenchymal cell types into blood vessel organoids Stem Cell Rep. 16 2432–41

[102] Heo D N, Ayan B, Dey M, Banerjee D, Wee H, Lewis G S and Ozbolat I T 2021 Aspiration-assisted bioprinting of co-cultured osteogenic spheroids for bone tissue engineering Biofabrication 13 015013

[103] Onoe H et al 2013 Metre-long cell-laden microfibres exhibit tissue morphologies and functions Nat. Mater. 12 584–90

[104] Liu Y et al 2022 hESCs-derived early vascular cell spheroids for cardiac tissue vascular engineering and myocardial infarction treatment Adv. Sci. 9 2104299

[105] Wang Y, Kankala R K, Cai Y-Y, Tang H-X, Zhu K, Zhang J-T, Yang D-Y, Wang S-B, Zhang Y S and Chen A-Z 2021 Minimally invasive co-injection of modular micro-muscular and micro-vascular tissues improves in situ skeletal muscle regeneration Biomaterials 277 121072

[106] Yuan Z Y et al 2021 Injectable GelMA cryogel microspheres for modularized cell delivery and potential vascularized bone regeneration Small 17 2006596

[107] Patrick M D, Keys J F, Kumar H S and Annamalai R T 2022 Injectable nanoporous microgels generate vascularized constructs and support bone regeneration in critical-sized defects Sci. Rep. 12 15811

[108] Wimmer R A et al 2019 Human blood vessel organoids as a model of diabetic vasculopathy Nature 565 505–10

[109] Huang X F et al 2023 Stomach-derived human insulin-secreting organoids restore glucose homeostasis Nat. Cell Biol. 25 778–86

[110] Stevens K R et al 2017 In situ expansion of engineered human liver tissue in a mouse model of chronic liver disease Sci. Trans. Med. 9 eaah5505

[111] Takahashi Y, Sekine K, Kin T, Takebe T and Taniguchi H 2018 Self-condensation culture enables vascularization of tissue fragments for efficient therapeutic transplantation Cell Rep. 23 1620–9

[112] Nalbach L et al 2021 Improvement of islet transplantation by the fusion of islet cells with functional blood vessels EMBO Mol. Med. 13 e12616

[113] Rossen N S et al 2020 Injectable therapeutic organoids using sacrificial hydrogels iScience 23 101052

[114] Wagner J U G et al 2020 Dissection of heterocellular cross-talk in vascularized cardiac tissue mimetics J. Mol. Cellular Cardiol. 138 269–82

[115] Fritschen A and Blaeser A 2021 Biosynthetic, biomimetic, and self-assembled vascularized Organ-on-a-Chip systems Biomaterials 268 120556

[116] Chandra P and Atala A 2019 Engineering blood vessels and vascularized tissues: technology trends and potential clinical applications Clin. Sci. 133 1115–35

[117] Zhang B Y et al 2016 Biodegradable scaffold with built-in vasculature for organ-on-a-chip engineering and direct surgical anastomosis Nat. Mater. 15 669–78

[118] Bertassoni L E et al 2014 Hydrogel bioprinted microchannel networks for vascularization of tissue engineering constructs Lab Chip 14 2202–11

[119] Kinstlinger I S et al 2020 Generation of model tissues with dendritic vascular networks via sacrificial laser-sintered carbohydrate templates Nat. Biomed. Eng. 4 916–32

[120] Noor N, Shapira A, Edri R, Gal I, Wertheim L and Dvir T 2019 3D Printing of personalized thick and perfusable cardiac patches and hearts Adv. Sci. 6 1900344

[121] Skylar-Scott M A, Huang J Y, Lu A, Ng A H M, Duenki T, Liu S L, Nam L L, Damaraju S, Church G M and Lewis J A 2022 Orthogonally induced differentiation of stem cells for the programmatic patterning of vascularized organoids and bioprinted tissues Nat. Biomed. Eng. 6 449–62

[122] Lee A, Hudson A R, Shiwarski D J, Tashman J W, Hinton T J, Yerneni S, Bliley J M, Campbell P G and Feinberg A W 2019 3D bioprinting of collagen to rebuild components of the human heart Science 365 482–7

[123] Wang J B et al 2023 Rational design and acoustic assembly of human cerebral cortex-like microtissues from hiPSC-derived neural progenitors and neurons Adv. Mater. 35 2210631

[124] Ahrens J H, Uzel S G M, Skylar-Scott M, Mata M M, Lu A, Kroll K T and Lewis J A 2022 Programming cellular alignment in engineered cardiac tissue via bioprinting anisotropic organ building blocks Adv. Mater. 34 2200217

[125] Wu P Z, Asada H, Hakamada M and Mabuchi M 2023 Bioengineering of high cell density tissues with hierarchical vascular networks for ex vivo whole organs Adv. Mater. 35 2209149

[126] Skylar-Scott M A, Uzel S G M, Nam L L, Ahrens J H, Truby R L, Damaraju S and Lewis J A 2019 Biomanufacturing of organ-specific tissues with high cellular density and embedded vascular channels Sci. Adv. 5 eaaw2459

[127] Grebenyuk S, Fattah A R A, Kumar M, Toprakhisar B, Rustandi G, Vananroye A, Salmon I, Verfaillie C, Grillo M and Ranga A 2023 Large-scale perfused tissues via synthetic 3D soft microfluidics Nat. Commun. 14 193

[128] Ho D L L et al 2022 Large-scale production of wholly cellular bioinks via the optimization of human induced pluripotent stem cell aggregate culture in automated bioreactors Adv. Healthcare Mater. 11 2201138

[129] Belair D G, Wolf C J, Moorefield S D, Wood C, Becker C and Abbott B D 2018 A three-dimensional organoid culture model to assess the influence of chemicals on morphogenetic fusion Toxicol. Sci. 166 394–408

[130] Eilenberger C et al 2021 A microfluidic multisize spheroid array for multiparametric screening of anticancer drugs and blood-brain barrier transport properties Adv. Sci. 8 2004856

[131] Jiang L L, Chakraborty P, Zhang L S, Wong M, Hill S E, Webber C J, Libera J, Blair L J, Wolozin B and Zweckstetter M 2023 Chaperoning of specific tau structure by immunophilin FKBP12 regulates the neuronal resilience to extracellular stress Sci. Adv. 9 eadd9789

[132] Sabate-Soler S et al 2022 Microglia integration into human midbrain organoids leads to increased neuronal maturation and functionality GLIA 70 1267–88

[133] Choi J-I, Rim J H, Jang S I, Park J S, Park H, Cho J H and Lim J-B 2022 The role of Jagged1 as a dynamic switch of cancer cell plasticity in PDAC assembloids Theranostics 12 4431–45

[134] W?rsd?rfer P, Dalda N, Kern A, Krüger S, Wagner N, Kwok C K, Henke E and Ergün S 2019 Generation of complex human organoid models including vascular networks by incorporation of mesodermal progenitor cells Sci. Rep. 9 15663

[135] Kim E et al 2020 Creation of bladder assembloids mimicking tissue regeneration and cancer Nature 588 664–9

[136] Chen H et al 2022 Acoustic bioprinting of patient-derived organoids for predicting cancer therapy responses Adv. Healthcare Mater. 11 2102784

[137] Agarwal P, Wang H, Sun M R, Xu J S, Zhao S T, Liu Z G, Gooch K J, Zhao Y, Lu X B and He X M 2017 Microfluidics enabled bottom-up engineering of 3D vascularized tumor for drug discovery ACS Nano 11 6691–702

[138] Reiner O, Sapir T and Parichha A 2021 Using multi-organ culture systems to study Parkinson’s disease Mol. Psychiatry 26 725–35

[139] Wang L, Sievert D, Clark A E, Lee S, Federman H, Gastfriend B D, Shusta E V, Palecek S P, Carlin A F and Gleeson J G 2021 A human three-dimensional neural-perivascular ‘assembloid’ promotes astrocytic development and enables modeling of SARS-CoV-2 neuropathology Nat. Med. 27 1600–6

[140] Kong D, Park K H, Kim D-H, Kim N G, Lee S-E, Shin N, Kook M G, Kim Y B and Kang K-S 2023 Cortical-blood vessel assembloids exhibit Alzheimer’s disease phenotypes by activating glia after SARS-CoV-2 infection Cell Death Discovery 9 32

[141] Feij?ao T, Neves M I, Sousa A, Torres A L, Bidarra S J, Orge I D, Carvalho D T O and Barrias C C 2021 Engineering injectable vascularized tissues from the bottom-up: dynamics of in-gel extra-spheroid dermal tissue assembly Biomaterials 279 121222

[142] Patan S 2004 Vasculogenesis and angiogenesis Angiogenesis in Brain Tumors (Cancer Treatment and Research) vol 117 (Springer) pp 3–32

[143] Rouwkema J and Khademhosseini A 2016 Vascularization and angiogenesis in tissue engineering: beyond creating static networks Trends Biotechnol. 34 733–45

[144] Homan K A et al 2019 Flow-enhanced vascularization and maturation of kidney organoids in vitro Nat. Methods 16 255–62

[145] Wang D et al 2022 Microfluidic bioprinting of tough hydrogel-based vascular conduits for functional blood vessels Sci. Adv. 8 eabq6900

[146] Daly A C, Davidson M D and Burdick J A 2021 3D bioprinting of high cell-density heterogeneous tissue models through spheroid fusion within self-healing hydrogels Nat. Commun. 12 753

[147] Ryu H et al 2021 Transparent, compliant 3D mesostructures for precise evaluation of mechanical characteristics of organoids Adv. Mater. 33 2100026

[148] Park Y et al 2021 Three-dimensional, multifunctional neural interfaces for cortical spheroids and engineered assembloids Sci. Adv. 7 eabf9153

[149] Martins J-M et al 2020 Self-organizing 3D human trunk neuromuscular organoids Cell Stem Cell 26 172–86.e6