[1] Moroni L et al 2018 Biofabrication: a guide to technology and terminology Trends Biotechnol. 36 384–402
[2] Groll J et al 2018 A definition of bioinks and their distinction from biomaterial inks Biofabrication 11 013001
[3] Sengupta D, Waldman S D and Li S 2014 From in vitro to in situ tissue engineering Ann. Biomed. Eng. 42 1537–45
[4] Singh S, Choudhury D, Yu F, Mironov V and Naing M W 2020 In situ bioprinting—bioprinting from benchside to bedside? Acta Biomater. 101 14–25
[5] Murphy S V and Atala A 2014 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs Nat. Biotechnol. 32 773–85
[6] Bartolo P, Malshe A, Ferraris E and Koc B 2022 3D bioprinting: materials, processes, and applications CIRP Ann. 71 577–97
[7] Hakimi N, Cheng R, Leng L, Sotoudehfar M, Ba P Q, Bakhtyar N, Amini-Nik S, Jeschke M G and Günther A 2018 Handheld skin printer: in situ formation of planar biomaterials and tissues Lab Chip 18 1440–51
[8] Adib A A, Sheikhi A, Shahhosseini M, Simeunovi′c A, Wu S, Castro C E, Zhao R, Khademhosseini A and Hoelzle D J 2020 Direct-write 3D printing and characterization of a GelMA-based biomaterial for intracorporeal tissue engineering Biofabrication 12 045006
[9] Zhao W X and Xu T 2020 Preliminary engineering for in situ in vivo bioprinting: a novel micro bioprinting platform for in situ in vivo bioprinting at a gastric wound site Biofabrication 12 045020
[10] Li Q, Ma L and Gao C Y 2015 Biomaterials for in situ tissue regeneration: development and perspectives J. Mater. Chem. B 3 8921–38
[11] Kim B S, Baez C E and Atala A 2000 Biomaterials for tissue engineering World J. Urol. 18 2–9
[12] Abdulghani S and Mitchell G R 2019 Biomaterials for in situ tissue regeneration: a review Biomolecules 9 750
[13] Galarraga J H, Kwon M Y and Burdick J A 2019 3D bioprinting via an in situ crosslinking technique towards engineering cartilage tissue Sci. Rep. 9 19987
[14] Albanna M et al 2019 In situ bioprinting of autologous skin cells accelerates wound healing of extensive excisional full-thickness wounds Sci. Rep. 9 1856
[15] Cheng R Y, Eylert G, Gariepy J M, He S J, Ahmad H, Gao Y Z, Priore S, Hakimi N, Jeschke M G and Günther A 2020 Handheld instrument for wound-conformal delivery of skin precursor sheets improves healing in full-thickness burns Biofabrication 12 025002
[16] Keriquel V et al 2017 In situ printing of mesenchymal stromal cells, by laser-assisted bioprinting, for in vivo bone regeneration applications Sci. Rep. 7 1778
[17] LiL,ShiJP, MaKW, JinJ,WangP, LiangHX,CaoY, Wang X S and Jiang Q 2020 Robotic in situ 3D bio-printing technology for repairing large segmental bone defects J. Adv. Res. 30 75–84
[18] Russell C S et al 2020 In situ printing of adhesive hydrogel scaffolds for the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 3 1568–79
[19] Quint J P et al 2021 In vivo printing of nanoenabled scaffolds for the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries Adv. Healthcare Mater. 10 2002152
[20] Ma K et al 2020 Application of robotic-assisted in situ 3D printing in cartilage regeneration with HAMA hydrogel: an in vivo study J. Adv. Res. 23 123–32
[21] O’Connell C D et al 2016 Development of the Biopen: a handheld device for surgical printing of adipose stem cells at a chondral wound site Biofabrication 8 015019
[22] Duchi S et al 2017 Handheld co-axial bioprinting: application to in situ surgical cartilage repair Sci. Rep. 7 5837
[23] Di Bella C et al 2018 In situ handheld three-dimensional bioprinting for cartilage regeneration J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 12 611–21
[24] Lipskas J, Deep K and Yao W 2019 Robotic-assisted 3D bio-printing for repairing bone and cartilage defects through a minimally invasive approach Sci. Rep. 9 3746
[25] Cohen D L, Lipton J I, Bonassar L J and Lipson H 2010 Additive manufacturing for in situ repair of osteochondral defects Biofabrication 2 035004
[26] Moncal K K et al 2021 Intra-operative bioprinting of hard, soft, and hard/soft composite tissues for craniomaxillofacial reconstruction Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 2010858
[27] Trengove A, Di Bella C and O’Connor A J 2022 The challenge of cartilage integration: understanding a major barrier to chondral repair Tissue Eng. B 28 114–28
[28] Khan I M, Gilbert S J, Singhrao S K, Duance V V and Archer C W 2008 Cartilage integration: evaluation of the reasons for failure of integration during cartilage repair. A review Eur. Cell Mater. 16 26–39
[29] Lepage S I et al 2019 Beyond cartilage repair: the role of the osteochondral unit in joint health and disease Tissue Eng. B 25 114–25
[30] Vyas C, Mishbak H, Cooper G, Peach C, Pereira R F and Bartolo P 2020 Biological perspectives and current biofabrication strategies in osteochondral tissue engineering Biomanuf. Rev. 5 2
[31] Kwon H, Brown W E, Lee C A, Wang D A, Paschos N, Hu J C and Athanasiou K A 2019 Surgical and tissue engineering strategies for articular cartilage and meniscus repair Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 15 550–70
[32] Cipitria A et al 2017 In-situ tissue regeneration through SDF-1α driven cell recruitment and stiffness-mediated bone regeneration in a critical-sized segmental femoral defect Acta Biomater. 60 50–63
[33] Whitely M, Cereceres S, Dhavalikar P, Salhadar K, Wilems T, Smith B, Mikos A and Cosgriff-Hernandez E 2018 Improved in situ seeding of 3D printed scaffolds using cell-releasing hydrogels Biomaterials 185 194–204
[34] Athanasiou K A, Darling E M, Hu J C, DuRaine G D and Reddi H A 2016 Articular Cartilage 2nd edn (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press)
[35] Huey D J, Hu J C and Athanasiou K A 2012 Unlike bone, cartilage regeneration remains elusive Science 338 917–21
[36] Correa D and Lietman S A 2017 Articular cartilage repair: current needs, methods and research directions Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 62 67–77
[37] Hunter D J and Bierma-Zeinstra S 2019 Osteoarthritis Lancet 393 1745–59
[38] Bhosale A M and Richardson J B 2008 Articular cartilage: structure, injuries and review of management Br. Med. Bull. 87 77–95
[39] Siemieniuk R A C et al 2017 Arthroscopic surgery for degenerative knee arthritis and meniscal tears: a clinical practice guideline BMJ 357 j1982
[40] Makris E A, Gomoll A H, Malizos K N, Hu J C and Athanasiou K A 2015 Repair and tissue engineering techniques for articular cartilage Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 11 21–34
[41] Hangody L, Ráthonyi G K, Duska Z, Vásárhelyi G, Füles P and Módis L 2004 Autologous osteochondral mosaicplasty: surgical technique J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 86 65–72
[42] Arzi B, Duraine G D, Lee C A, Huey D J, Borjesson D L, Murphy B G, Hu J C Y, Baumgarth N and Athanasiou K A 2015 Cartilage immunoprivilege depends on donor source and lesion location Acta Biomater. 23 72–81
[43] Koh J L, Wirsing K, Lautenschlager E and Zhang L O 2004 The effect of graft height mismatch on contact pressure following osteochondral grafting: a biomechanical study Am. J. Sports Med. 32 317–20
[44] Lee Koh J, Kowalski A and Lautenschlager E 2006 The effect of angled osteochondral grafting on contact pressure: a biomechanical study Am. J. Sports Med. 34 116–9
[45] Bentley G, Biant L C, Vijayan S, Macmull S, Skinner J A and Carrington R W J 2012 Minimum ten-year results of a prospective randomised study of autologous chondrocyte implantation versus mosaicplasty for symptomatic articular cartilage lesions of the knee J. Bone Joint Surg. Br. 94 504–9
[46] Harris J D, Siston R A, Pan X L and Flanigan D C 2010 Autologous chondrocyte implantation: a systematic review J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 92 2220–33
[47] Kwon H, Paschos N K, Hu J C and Athanasiou K 2016 Articular cartilage tissue engineering: the role of signaling molecules Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 73 1173–94
[48] WangZH,LeHX,WangYB,LiuH,LiZH,YangXY, Wang C Y, Ding J X and Chen X S 2022 Instructive cartilage regeneration modalities with advanced therapeutic implantations under abnormal conditions Bioact. Mater. 11 317–38
[49] Zhang Y B, Liu X C, Zeng L D, Zhang J, Zuo J L, Zou J, Ding J X and Chen X S 2019 Polymer fiber scaffolds for bone and cartilage tissue engineering Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1903279
[50] YangXC,LuZH,Wu HY, LiW, ZhengLandZhaoJM 2018 Collagen-alginate as bioink for three-dimensional (3D) cell printing based cartilage tissue engineering Mater. Sci. Eng. C 83 195–201
[51] Antich C, De Vicente J, Jiménez G, Chocarro C, Carrillo E, Monta.nez E, Gálvez-Martín P and Marchal J A 2020 Bio-inspired hydrogel composed of hyaluronic acid and alginate as a potential bioink for 3D bioprinting of articular cartilage engineering constructs Acta Biomater. 106 114–23
[52] Hauptstein J et al 2020 Hyaluronic acid-based bioink composition enabling 3D bioprinting and improving quality of deposited cartilaginous extracellular matrix Adv. Healthcare Mater. 9 2000737
[53] LiLP et al 2021 Chitosan hydrogel/3D-printed poly (ε-caprolactone) hybrid scaffold containing synovial mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage regeneration based on tetrahedral framework nucleic acid recruitment Biomaterials 278 121131
[54] ShiWL et al 2017 Structurally and functionally optimized silk-fibroin–gelatin scaffold using 3D printing to repair cartilage injury in vitro and in vivo Adv. Mater. 29 1701089
[55] LiQT, XuS,FengQ,DaiQY, Yao LT, ZhangYC, GaoH C, Dong H, Chen D F and Cao X D 20213D printed silk-gelatin hydrogel scaffold with different porous structure and cell seeding strategy for cartilage regeneration Bioact. Mater. 6 3396–410
[56] Zhang X, Liu Y, Luo C Y, Zhai C J, Li Z X, Zhang Y, Yuan T, Dong S L, Zhang J Y and Fan W M 2021 Crosslinker-free silk/decellularized extracellular matrix porous bioink for 3D bioprinting-based cartilage tissue engineering Mater. Sci. Eng. C 118 111388
[57] Gruber S M S, Murab S, Ghosh P, Whitlock P W and Lin C Y J 2022 Direct 3D printing of decellularized matrix embedded composite polycaprolactone scaffolds for cartilage regeneration Biomater. Adv. 140 213052
[58] Kosik-Kozio. A, Costantini M, Bolek T, Sz.ke K, Barbetta A, Brinchmann J and ′ .szkowski W 2017 Swie PLA short sub-micron fiber reinforcement of 3D bioprinted alginate constructs for cartilage regeneration Biofabrication 9 044105
[59] Hung K C, Tseng C S and Hsu S H 2014 Synthesis and 3D printing of biodegradable polyurethane elastomer by a water-based process for cartilage tissue engineering applications Adv. Healthcare Mater. 3 1578–87
[60] ZhaoDY, ZhuTT, LiJ,CuiLG,ZhangZY, ZhuangXL and Ding J X 2021 Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-based composite bone-substitute materials Bioact. Mater. 6 346–60
[61] LiuZT, ZhangJ,FuCFandDingJX2023 Osteoimmunity-regulating biomaterials promote bone regeneration Asian J. Pharm. Sci. 18 100774
[62] Zhang J et al 2022 Osteoimmunity-regulating biomimetically hierarchical scaffold for augmented bone regeneration Adv. Mater. 34 2202044
[63] Pabbruwe M B, Esfandiari E, Kafienah W, Tarlton J F and Hollander A P 2009 Induction of cartilage integration by a chondrocyte/collagen-scaffold implant Biomaterials 30 4277–86
[64] Lyman J R, Chappell J D, Morales T I, Kelley S S and Lee G M 2012 Response of chondrocytes to local mechanical injury in an ex vivo model Cartilage 3 58–69
[65] LuYM,XuY, YinZW, YangXF, JiangYQandGuiJC 2013 Chondrocyte migration affects tissue-engineered cartilage integration by activating the signal transduction pathways involving Src, PLCγ1, and ERK1/2 Tissue Eng. A 19 2506–16
[66] Karim A and Hall A C 2016 Hyperosmolarity normalises serum-induced changes to chondrocyte properties in a model of cartilage injury Eur. Cell Mater. 31 205–20
[67] Szafranski J D, Grodzinsky A J, Burger E, Gaschen V, Hung H H and Hunziker E B 2004 Chondrocyte mechanotransduction: effects of compression on deformation of intracellular organelles and relevance to cellular biosynthesis Osteoarthr. Cartil. 12 937–46
[68] Sanchez-Adams J, Leddy H A, Mcnulty A L, O’conor C J and Guilak F 2014 The mechanobiology of articular cartilage: bearing the burden of osteoarthritis Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 16 451
[69] Tonutti M, Elson D S, Yang G Z, Darzi A W and Sodergren M H 2017 The role of technology in minimally invasive surgery: state of the art, recent developments and future directions Postgrad. Med. J. 93 159–67
[70] Han J P, Davids J, Ashrafian H, Darzi A, Elson D S and Sodergren M 2022 A systematic review of robotic surgery: from supervised paradigms to fully autonomous robotic approaches Int. J. Med. Robot. 18 e2358
[71] Shah J, Vyas A and Vyas D 2014 The history of robotics in surgical specialties Am. J. Robot. Surg. 1 12–20
[72] Banger M, Doonan J, Rowe P, Jones B, Maclean A and Blyth M J B 2021 Robotic arm-assisted versus conventional medial unicompartmental knee arthroplasty: five-year clinical outcomes of a randomized controlled trial Bone Joint J. 103 1088–95
[73] Jakopec M, Harris S J, Rodriguez Y Baena F, Gomes P, Cobb J and Davies B L 2001 The first clinical application of a “hands-on” robotic knee surgery system Comput. Aided Surg. 6 329–39
[74] Kayani B, Konan S, Tahmassebi J, Pietrzak J R T and Haddad F S 2018 Robotic-arm assisted total knee arthroplasty is associated with improved early functional recovery and reduced time to hospital discharge compared with conventional jig-based total knee arthroplasty: a prospective cohort study Bone Joint J. 100 930–7
[75] Kayani B, Konan S, Tahmassebi J, Rowan F E and Haddad F S 2019 An assessment of early functional rehabilitation and hospital discharge in conventional versus robotic-arm assisted unicompartmental knee arthroplasty: a prospective cohort study Bone Joint J. 101 24–33
[76] Deckey D G, Rosenow C S, Verhey J T, Brinkman J C, Mayfield C K, Clarke H D and Bingham J S 2021 Robotic-assisted total knee arthroplasty improves accuracy and precision compared to conventional techniques Bone Joint J. 103 74–80
[77] Huijbregts H J T A M, Khan R J K, Fick D P, Hall M J, Punwar S A, Sorensen E, Reid M J, Vedove S D and Haebich S 2016 Component alignment and clinical outcome following total knee arthroplasty: a randomised controlled trial comparing an intramedullary alignment system with patient-specific instrumentation Bone Joint J. 98 1043–9
[78] van der Woude J A D, Wiegant K, Van Heerwaarden R J, Spruijt S, Emans P J, Mastbergen S C and Lafeber F P J G 2017 Knee joint distraction compared with total knee arthroplasty: a randomised controlled trial Bone Joint J. 99 51–58
[79] Kim Y H, Yoon S H and Park J W 2020 Does robotic-assisted TKA result in better outcome scores or long-term survivorship than conventional TKA? A randomized, controlled trial Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 478 266–75
[80] Cunningham S, Chellali A, Jaffre I, Classe J and Cao C G L 2013 Effects of experience and workplace culture in human-robot team interaction in robotic surgery: a case study Int. J. Soc. Robot. 5 75–88
[81] Enright O R and Patane M G 2018 Workflow in robotic surgery The SAGES Atlas of Robotic Surgery ed Y Fong, Y Woo, W J Hyung, C Lau and V E Strong (Cham: Springer) pp 67–69
[82] Peters B S, Armijo P R, Krause C, Choudhury S A and Oleynikov D 2018 Review of emerging surgical robotic technology Surg. Endosc. 32 1636–55
[83] Kapoor A, Kumar R and Taylor R H 2003 Simple biomanipulation tasks with “steady hand” cooperative manipulator 6th Int. Conf. on Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention (Montréal: Springer) pp 141–8
[84] Kuchenbecker K J, Gewirtz J, McMahan W, Standish D, Martin P, Bohren J, Mendoza P J and Lee D I 2010 VerroTouch: high-frequency acceleration feedback for telerobotic surgery 7th Int. Conf. on Haptics: Generating and Perceiving Tangible Sensations (Amsterdam: Springer) pp 189–96
[85] Fanfani F, Monterossi G, Fagotti A, Rossitto C, Alletti S G, Costantini B, Gallotta V, Selvaggi L, Restaino S and Scambia G 2016 The new robotic TELELAP ALF-X in gynecological surgery: single-center experience Surg. Endosc. 30 215–21
[86] Simorov A, Otte R S, Kopietz C M and Oleynikov D 2012 Review of surgical robotics user interface: what is the best way to control robotic surgery? Surg. Endosc. 26 2117–25
[87] Pappas T, Fernando A and Nathan M 2020 Senhance surgical system: robotic-assisted digital laparoscopy for abdominal, pelvic, and thoracoscopic procedures Handbook of Robotic and Image-Guided Surgery ed M H Abedin-Nasab (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 1–14
[88] Tan Y P, Liverneaux P and Wong J K F 2018 Current limitations of surgical robotics in reconstructive plastic microsurgery Front. Surg. 5 22
[89] Ying G, Manríquez J, Wu D, Zhang J, Jiang N, Maharjan S, Hernández Medina D H and Zhang Y S 2020 An open-source handheld extruder loaded with pore-forming bioink for in situ wound dressing Mater. Today Bio 8 100074
[90] Chen Y W et al 2020 Noninvasive in vivo 3D bioprinting Sci. Adv. 6 eaba7406
[91] Urciuolo A et al 2020 Intravital three-dimensional bioprinting Nat. Biomed. Eng. 4 901–15
[92] Chahal D, Ahmadi A and Cheung K C 2012 Improving piezoelectric cell printing accuracy and reliability through neutral buoyancy of suspensions Biotechnol. Bioeng. 109 2932–40
[93] Malda J, Visser J, Melchels F P, Jüngst T, Hennink W E, Dhert W J A, Groll J and Hutmacher D W 2013 25th anniversary article: engineering hydrogels for biofabrication Adv. Mater. 25 5011–28
[94] Pereira R F and Bártolo P J 2015 3D bioprinting of photocrosslinkable hydrogel constructs J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 132 42458
[95] Catros S, Fricain J C, Guillotin B, Pippenger B, Bareille R, Remy M, Lebraud E, Desbat B, Amédée J and Guillemot F 2011 Laser-assisted bioprinting for creating on-demand patterns of human osteoprogenitor cells and nano-hydroxyapatite Biofabrication 3 025001
[96] Pati F, Gantelius J and Svahn H A 2016 3D bioprinting of tissue/organ models Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 55 4650–65
[97] Mandrycky C, Wang Z J, Kim K and Kim D H 2016 3D bioprinting for engineering complex tissues Biotechnol. Adv. 34 422–34
[98] Ji S, Almeida E and Guvendiren M 2019 3D bioprinting of complex channels within cell-laden hydrogels Acta Biomater. 95 214–24
[99] XiaHT et al 2018 Lyophilized scaffolds fabricated from 3D-printed photocurable natural hydrogel for cartilage regeneration ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 31704–15
[100] LiL,Yu F, ShiJP, ShenS,TengHJ,YangJQ,WangXS and Jiang Q 2017 In situ repair of bone and cartilage defects using 3D scanning and 3D printing Sci. Rep. 7 9416
[101] Moura D, Pereira R F and Gon.alves I C 2022 Recent advances on bioprinting of hydrogels containing carbon materials Mater. Today Chem. 23 100617
[102] Pereira R F, Sousa A, Barrias C C, Bártolo P J and Granja P L 2018 A single-component hydrogel bioink for bioprinting of bioengineered 3D constructs for dermal tissue engineering Mater. Horiz. 5 1100–11
[103] Di Marzio N, Eglin D, Serra T and Moroni L 2020 Bio-fabrication: convergence of 3D bioprinting and nano-biomaterials in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 8 326
[104] O’Connell C D et al 2020 Free-form co-axial bioprinting of a gelatin methacryloyl bio-ink by direct in situ photo-crosslinking during extrusion Bioprinting 19 e00087
[105] ZhangYB,Yu JK,RenKX,ZuoJL,DingJXand Chen X S 2019 Thermosensitive hydrogels as scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering Biomacromolecules 20 1478–92
[106] Wang C et al 2019 Injectable cholesterol-enhanced stereocomplex polylactide thermogel loading chondrocytes for optimized cartilage regeneration Adv. Healthcare Mater. 8 1900312
[107] Pereira R F and Bártolo P J 2015 3D photo-fabrication for tissue engineering and drug delivery Engineering 1 90–112
[108] Tibbitt M W, Kloxin A M, Sawicki L A and Anseth K S 2013 Mechanical properties and degradation of chain and step-polymerized photodegradable hydrogels Macromolecules 46 2785–92
[109] Pittenger M F, Discher D E, Péault B M, Phinney D G, Hare J M and Caplan A I 2019 Mesenchymal stem cell perspective: cell biology to clinical progress npj Regen. Med. 4 22
[110] Kimbrel E A and Lanza R 2020 Next-generation stem cells—ushering in a new era of cell-based therapies Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 19 463–79
[111] Lam A T L, Reuveny S and Oh S K W 2020 Human mesenchymal stem cell therapy for cartilage repair: review on isolation, expansion, and constructs Stem Cell Res. 44 101738
[112] Kalamegam G, Memic A, Budd E, Abbas M and Mobasheri A 2018 A comprehensive review of stem cells for cartilage regeneration in osteoarthritis Cell Biology and Translational Medicine, Volume 2: Approaches for Diverse Diseases and Conditions ed K Turksen (Cham: Springer) pp 23–36
[113] Squillaro T, Peluso G and Galderisi U 2016 Clinical trials with mesenchymal stem cells: an update Cell Transplant. 25 829–48
[114] Galipeau J and Sensébé L 2018 Mesenchymal stromal cells: clinical challenges and therapeutic opportunities Cell Stem Cell 22 824–33
[115] Murphy M P et al 2020 Articular cartilage regeneration by activated skeletal stem cells Nat. Med. 26 1583–92
[116] Yamanaka S 2020 Pluripotent stem cell-based cell therapy—promise and challenges Cell Stem Cell 27 523–31
[117] GuoXL,MaY, MinY, SunJY, ShiXL,GaoGB,SunL and Wang J D 2023 Progress and prospect of technical and regulatory challenges on tissue-engineered cartilage as therapeutic combination product Bioact. Mater. 20 501–18
[118] Toh W S, Lee E H and Cao T 2011 Potential of human embryonic stem cells in cartilage tissue engineering and regenerative medicine Stem Cell Rev. Rep. 7 544–59
[119] Urli′c I and Ivkovi′c A 2021 Cell sources for cartilage repair—biological and clinical perspective Cells 10 2496
[120] Li J et al 2021 Biophysical and biochemical cues of biomaterials guide mesenchymal stem cell behaviors Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 9 640388
[121] Wang B, Díaz-Payno P J, Browe D C, Freeman F E, Nulty J, Burdis R and Kelly D J 2021 Affinity-bound growth factor within sulfated interpenetrating network bioinks for bioprinting cartilaginous tissues Acta Biomater. 128 130–42
[122] Chen L, Liu J X, Guan M, Zhou T G, Duan X and Xiang Z 2020 Growth factor and its polymer scaffold-based delivery system for cartilage tissue engineering Int. J. Nanomed. 15 6097–111
[123] Yoon H J, Kim S B, Somaiya D, Noh M J, Choi K B, LimC L,Lee HY, Lee YJ, Yi Y and Lee K H 2015Type II collagen and glycosaminoglycan expression induction in primary human chondrocyte by TGF-β1 BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 16 141
[124] Hatakeyama Y, Tuan R S and Shum L 2004 Distinct functions of BMP4 and GDF5 in the regulation of chondrogenesis J. Cell. Biochem. 91 1204–17
[125] Ruvinov E, Tavor Re’em T, Witte F and Cohen S 2019 Articular cartilage regeneration using acellular bioactive affinity-binding alginate hydrogel: a 6-month study in a mini-pig model of osteochondral defects J. Orthop. Transl. 16 40–52
[126] LiuC,LiT, YangZJ,LiuDS,LiY, ZhouZYand Zhang Q Q 2017 Kartogenin enhanced chondrogenesis in cocultures of chondrocytes and bone mesenchymal stem cells Tissue Eng. A 24 990–1000
[127] Liu Y Z et al 2021 3D-bioprinted BMSC-laden biomimetic multiphasic scaffolds for efficient repair of osteochondral defects in an osteoarthritic rat model Biomaterials 279 121216
[128] Zhao T Y et al 2022 Advancing drug delivery to articular cartilage: from single to multiple strategies Acta Pharm. Sin. B (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsb.2022.11.021)
[129] Pradal J, Maudens P, Gabay C, Seemayer C A, Jordan O and Allémann E 2016 Effect of particle size on the biodistribution of nano-and microparticles following intra-articular injection in mice Int. J. Pharm. 498 119–29
[130] Champion J A, Walker A and Mitragotri S 2008 Role of particle size in phagocytosis of polymeric microspheres Pharm. Res. 25 1815–21
[131] Buwalda S J, Vermonden T and Hennink W E 2017 Hydrogels for therapeutic delivery: current developments and future directions Biomacromolecules 18 316–30
[132] Ha J H and Loh S N 2012 Protein conformational switches: from nature to design Chem. Eur. J. 18 7984–99
[133] CaiY, Wu CX,OuQH,ZengMH,XueS,ChenJL,LuY and Ding C H 2023 Enhanced osteoarthritis therapy by nanoengineered mesenchymal stem cells using biomimetic CuS nanoparticles loaded with plasmid DNA encoding TGF-β1 Bioact. Mater. 19 444–57
[134] FengQ,LiDG,LiQT, LiSX,HuangHH,LiHF, DongH and Cao X D 2022 Dynamic nanocomposite microgel assembly with microporosity, injectability, tissue-adhesion, and sustained drug release promotes articular cartilage repair and regeneration Adv. Healthcare Mater. 11 2102395
[135] Merino S, Martín C, Kostarelos K, Prato M and Vázquez E 2015 Nanocomposite hydrogels: 3D polymer–nanoparticle synergies for on-demand drug delivery ACS Nano 9 4686–97
[136] Pereira R F, Louren.o B N, Bártolo P J and Granja P L 2021 Bioprinting a multifunctional bioink to engineer clickable 3D cellular niches with tunable matrix microenvironmental cues Adv. Healthcare Mater. 10 2001176
[137] Yang Y S, Jia Y B, Yang Q Z and Xu F 2023 Engineering bio-inks for 3D bioprinting cell mechanical microenvironment Int. J. Bioprinting 9 632
[138] Blache U, Ford E M, Ha B, Rijns L, Chaudhuri O, Dankers P Y W, Kloxin A M, Snedeker J G and Gentleman E 2022 Engineered hydrogels for mechanobiology Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 2 98
[139] Zonderland J and Moroni L 2021 Steering cell behavior through mechanobiology in 3D: a regenerative medicine perspective Biomaterials 268 120572
[140] Fan Y C, Yue Z L, Lucarelli E and Wallace G G 2020 Hybrid printing using cellulose nanocrystals reinforced GelMA/HAMA hydrogels for improved structural integration Adv. Healthcare Mater. 9 2001410
[141] Chimene D, Kaunas R and Gaharwar A K 2020 Hydrogel bioink reinforcement for additive manufacturing: a focused review of emerging strategies Adv. Mater. 32 1902026
[142] Visser J, Melchels F P W, Jeon J E, van Bussel E M, Kimpton L S, Byrne H M, Dhert W J A, Dalton P D, Hutmacher D W and Malda J 2015 Reinforcement of hydrogels using three-dimensionally printed microfibres Nat. Commun. 6 6933
[143] Zhou C et al 2021 Ferromagnetic soft catheter robots for minimally invasive bioprinting Nat. Commun. 12 5072
[144] Thai M T, Phan P T, Tran H A, Nguyen C C, Hoang T T, Davies J, Rnjak-Kovacina J, Phan H P, Lovell N H and Do T N 2023 Advanced soft robotic system for in situ 3D bioprinting and endoscopic surgery Adv. Sci. 10 2205656
[145] WangMY, HeJK,LiuYX,LiM,LiDCandJinZG2015 The trend towards in vivo bioprinting Int. J. Bioprinting 1 15–26
[146] Ozbolat I T 2015 Bioprinting scale-up tissue and organ constructs for transplantation Trends Biotechnol. 33 395–400
[147] Fortunato G M, Rossi G, Bonatti A F, De Acutis A, Mendoza-Buenrostro C, Vozzi G and De Maria C 2021 Robotic platform and path planning algorithm for in situ bioprinting Bioprinting 22 e00139
[148] Cianchetti M, Laschi C, Menciassi A and Dario P 2018 Biomedical applications of soft robotics Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 143–53
[149] Kim Y and Zhao X H 2022 Magnetic soft materials and robots Chem. Rev. 122 5317–64
[150] LeeKH,FuDKC,LeongMCW, Chow M,FuHC, Althoefer K, Sze K Y, Yeung C K and Kwok K W 2017 Nonparametric online learning control for soft continuum robot: an enabling technique for effective endoscopic navigation Soft Robot. 4 324–37
[151] Lum G Z, Ye Z, Dong X G, Marvi H, Erin O, Hu W Q and Sitti M 2016 Shape-programmable magnetic soft matter Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113 E6007–15
[152] Zhou H J, Mayorga-Martinez C C, Pané S, Zhang L and Pumera M 2021 Magnetically driven micro and nanorobots Chem. Rev. 121 4999–5041
[153] Sitti M, Ceylan H, Hu W Q, Giltinan J, Turan M, Yim S and Diller E 2015 Biomedical applications of untethered mobile milli/microrobots Proc. IEEE 103 205–24
[154] Sitti M 2018 Miniature soft robots—road to the clinic Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 74–75
[155] Go G, Han J W N, Zhen J, Zheng S H, Yoo A, Jeon M J, Park J O and Park S 2017 A magnetically actuated microscaffold containing mesenchymal stem cells for articular cartilage repair Adv. Healthcare Mater. 6 1601378
[156] Go G et al 2020 Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell-based medical microrobot system for knee cartilage regeneration in vivo Sci. Robot. 5 eaay6626
[157] Yasa I C, Tabak A F, Yasa O, Ceylan H and Sitti M 2019 3D-printed microrobotic transporters with recapitulated stem cell niche for programmable and active cell delivery Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1808992
[158] Sophia Fox A J, Bedi A and Rodeo S A 2009 The basic science of articular cartilage: structure, composition, and function Sports Health 1 461–8
[159] Hu W Q, Lum G Z, Mastrangeli M and Sitti M 2018 Small-scale soft-bodied robot with multimodal locomotion Nature 554 81–85
[160] Zhu D Q, Tong X M, Trinh P and Yang F 2018 Mimicking cartilage tissue zonal organization by engineering tissue-scale gradient hydrogels as 3D cell niche Tissue Eng. A 24 1–10
[161] Zitnay J L, Reese S P, Tran G, Farhang N, Bowles R D and Weiss J A 2018 Fabrication of dense anisotropic collagen scaffolds using biaxial compression Acta Biomater. 65 76–87
[162] Steele J A M, Mccullen S D, Callanan A, Autefage H, Accardi M A, Dini D and Stevens M M 2014 Combinatorial scaffold morphologies for zonal articular cartilage engineering Acta Biomater. 10 2065–75
[163] Pattnaik A et al 2023 Designing of gradient scaffolds and their applications in tissue regeneration Biomaterials 296 122078
[164] Levato R, Webb W R, Otto I A, Mensinga A, Zhang Y D, Van Rijen M, Van Weeren R, Khan I M and Malda J 2017 The bio in the ink: cartilage regeneration with bioprintable hydrogels and articular cartilage-derived progenitor cells Acta Biomater. 61 41–53
[165] SunY, You YQ,JiangWB,WangB,Wu QandDaiKR 2020 3D bioprinting dual-factor releasing and gradient-structured constructs ready to implant for anisotropic cartilage regeneration Sci. Adv. 6 eaay1422
[166] Dufour A, Gallostra X B, O’keeffe C, Eichholz K, Von Euw S, Garcia O and Kelly D J 2022 Integrating melt electrowriting and inkjet bioprinting for engineering structurally organized articular cartilage Biomaterials 283 121405
[167] Burdis R, Chariyev-Prinz F, Browe D C, Freeman F E, Nulty J, Mcdonnell E E, Eichholz K F, Wang B, Brama P and Kelly D J 2022 Spatial patterning of phenotypically distinct microtissues to engineer osteochondral grafts for biological joint resurfacing Biomaterials 289 121750
[168] Burdis R, Chariyev-Prinz F and Kelly D J 2022 Bioprinting of biomimetic self-organised cartilage with a supporting joint fixation device Biofabrication 14 015008
[169] ZhaoWY, ZhangYL,ZhaoXD,JiZY, MaZF, GaoXS, Ma S H, Wang X L and Zhou F 2022 Bioinspired design of a cartilage-like lubricated composite with mechanical robustness ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14 9899–908
[170] Wu Y, Ravnic D J and Ozbolat I T 2020 Intraoperative bioprinting: repairing tissues and organs in a surgical setting Trends Biotechnol. 38 594–605
[171] Levinson C, Cavalli E, von Rechenberg B, Zenobi-Wong M and Darwiche S E 2021 Combination of a collagen scaffold and an adhesive hyaluronan-based hydrogel for cartilage regeneration: a proof of concept in an ovine model Cartilage 13 636S–49S
[172] Hua Y J et al 2021 Ultrafast, tough, and adhesive hydrogel based on hybrid photocrosslinking for articular cartilage repair in water-filled arthroscopy Sci. Adv. 7 eabg0628
[173] Walia R et al 2020 Hydrogel.solid hybrid materials for biomedical applications enabled by surface-embedded radicals Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 2004599
[174] Bas O et al 2017 Biofabricated soft network composites for cartilage tissue engineering Biofabrication 9 025014
[175] Buxboim A, Ivanovska I L and Discher D E 2010 Matrix elasticity, cytoskeletal forces and physics of the nucleus: how deeply do cells ‘feel’ outside and in? J. Cell Sci. 123 297–308
[176] Gannon A R, Nagel T, Bell A P, Avery N C and Kelly D J 2015 Postnatal changes to the mechanical properties of articular cartilage are driven by the evolution of its collagen network Eur. Cell Mater. 29 121–103
[177] de Melo B A, Jodat Y A, Mehrotra S, Calabrese M A, Kamperman T, Mandal B B, Santana M H A, Alsberg E, Leijten J and Shin S R 2019 3D printed cartilage-like tissue constructs with spatially controlled mechanical properties Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1906330
[178] Kim S, Uroz M, Bays J L and Chen C S 2021 Harnessing mechanobiology for tissue engineering Dev. Cell 56 180–91
[179] Gilbert S J and Blain E J 2018 Cartilage mechanobiology: how chondrocytes respond to mechanical load Mechanobiology in Health and Disease ed S W Verbruggen (Amsterdam: Elsevier) ch 4, pp 99–126
[180] Hodgkinson T, Amado I N, O’brien F J and Kennedy O D 2022 The role of mechanobiology in bone and cartilage model systems in characterizing initiation and progression of osteoarthritis APL Bioeng. 6 011501
[181] Elder B D and Athanasiou K A 2009 Systematic assessment of growth factor treatment on biochemical and biomechanical properties of engineered articular cartilage constructs Osteoarthr. Cartil. 17 114–23
[182] Bonassar L J, Grodzinsky A J, Frank E H, Davila S G, Bhaktav N R and Trippel S B 2001 The effect of dynamic compression on the response of articular cartilage to insulin-like growth factor-I J. Orthop. Res. 19 11–17
[183] Mauck R L, Nicoll S B, Seyhan S L, Ateshian G A and Hung C T 2003 Synergistic action of growth factors and dynamic loading for articular cartilage tissue engineering Tissue Eng. 9 597–611
[184] Ashammakhi N, Ahadian S, Xu C, Montazerian H, Ko H, Nasiri R, Barros N and Khademhosseini A 2019 Bioinks and bioprinting technologies to make heterogeneous and biomimetic tissue constructs Mater. Today Bio 1 100008
[185] Malda J, Groll J and van Weeren P R 2019 Rethinking articular cartilage regeneration based on a 250-year-old statement Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 15 571–2
[186] Zhao J C, Tong H Y, Kirillova A, Koshut W J, Malek A, Brigham N C, Becker M L, Gall K and Wiley B J 2022 A synthetic hydrogel composite with a strength and wear resistance greater than cartilage Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2205662
[187] Lindberg G C J, Lim K S, Soliman B G, Nguyen A, Hooper G J, Narayan R J and Woodfield T B F 2021 Biological function following radical photo-polymerization of biomedical polymers and surrounding tissues: design considerations and cellular risk factors Appl. Phys. Rev. 8 011301
[188] Yao H Y, Wang J Q and Mi S L 2018 Photo processing for biomedical hydrogels design and functionality: a review Polymers 10 11
[189] Mouhat M, Mercer J, Stangvaltaite L and .rtengren U 2017 Light-curing units used in dentistry: factors associated with heat development—potential risk for patients Clin. Oral Investig. 21 1687–96
[190] Masuma R, Kashima S, Kurasaki M and Okuno T 2013 Effects of UV wavelength on cell damages caused by UV irradiation in PC12 cells J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 125 202–8
[191] Williams C G, Malik A N, Kim T K, Manson P N and Elisseeff J H 2005 Variable cytocompatibility of six cell lines with photoinitiators used for polymerizing hydrogels and cell encapsulation Biomaterials 26 1211–8
[192] Hu J L, Hou Y P, Park H, Choi B, Hou S Y, Chung A and Lee M 2012 Visible light crosslinkable chitosan hydrogels for tissue engineering Acta Biomater. 8 1730–8
[193] Bartnikowski M, Bartnikowski N J, Woodruff M A, Schrobback K and Klein T J 2015 Protective effects of reactive functional groups on chondrocytes in photocrosslinkable hydrogel systems Acta Biomater. 27 66–76
[194] Lim K S, Klotz B J, Lindberg G C J, Melchels F P W, Hooper G J, Malda J, Gawlitta D and Woodfield T B F 2019 Visible light cross-linking of gelatin hydrogels offers an enhanced cell microenvironment with improved light penetration depth Macromol. Biosci. 19 1900098
[195] Thai M T, Phan P T, Hoang T T, Wong S, Lovell N H and Do T N 2020 Advanced intelligent systems for surgical robotics Adv. Intell. Syst. 2 1900138
[196] Zygomalas A, Kehagias I, Giokas K and Koutsouris D 2015 Miniature surgical robots in the era of NOTES and LESS: dream or reality? Surg. Innov. 22 97–107
[197] Omisore O M, Han S P, Xiong J, Li H, Li Z and Wang L 2020 A review on flexible robotic systems for minimally invasive surgery IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst. 52 631–44
[198] Runciman M, Darzi A and Mylonas G P 2019 Soft robotics in minimally invasive surgery Soft Robot. 6 423–43
[199] Wang H S, Zhang R X, Chen W D, Wang X Z and Pfeifer R 2017 A cable-driven soft robot surgical system for cardiothoracic endoscopic surgery: preclinical tests in animals Surg. Endosc. 31 3152–8
[200] Kim Y, Parada G A, Liu S D and Zhao X H 2019 Ferromagnetic soft continuum robots Sci. Robot. 4 eaax7329
[201] Ranzani T, Cianchetti M, Gerboni G, Falco I D and Menciassi A 2016 A soft modular manipulator for minimally invasive surgery: design and characterization of a single module IEEE Trans. Robot. 32 187–200
[202] Rich S I, Wood R J and Majidi C 2018 Untethered soft robotics Nat. Electron. 1 102–12
[203] Porter M and Shadbolt B 2021 Accuracy of standard magnetic resonance imaging sequences for meniscal and chondral lesions versus knee arthroscopy. A prospective case-controlled study of 719 cases ANZ J. Surg. 91 1284–9
[204] Hartjen N et al 2018 Evaluation of surfactant proteins A, B, C, and D in articular cartilage, synovial membrane and synovial fluid of healthy as well as patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis PLoS One 13 e0203502
[205] Kayaalp M E, Cirdi Y U, Kopf S and Becker R 2021 Prone-positioned knee arthroscopy for isolated retropatellar cartilage defects with gel-type autologous chondrocyte implantation Oper. Orthop. Traumatol. 33 436–44
[206] Yang G Z et al 2017 Medical robotics—regulatory, ethical, and legal considerations for increasing levels of autonomy Sci. Robot. 2 eaam8638
[207] Yang G Z et al 2018 The grand challenges of science robotics Sci. Robot. 3 eaar7650
[208] Nguyen C C et al 2023 Advanced user interfaces for teleoperated surgical robotic systems Adv. Sens. Res. 2 2200036
[209] Giordano G, Gagliardi M, Huan Y, Carlotti M, Mariani A, Menciassi A, Sinibaldi E and Mazzolai B 2021 Toward mechanochromic soft material-based visual feedback for electronics-free surgical effectors Adv. Sci. 8 2100418
[210] Hamet P and Tremblay J 2017 Artificial intelligence in medicine Metabolism 69 S36–S40
[211] ZhuZJ,NgDWH,ParkHSandMcalpineMC 2021 3D-printed multifunctional materials enabled by artificial-intelligence-assisted fabrication technologies Nat. Rev. Mater. 6 27–47
[212] Panayides A S et al 2020 AI in medical imaging informatics: current challenges and future directions IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inform. 24 1837–57
[213] Samandari M, Mostafavi A, Quint J, Memi′c A and Tamayol A 2022 In situ bioprinting: intraoperative implementation of regenerative medicine Trends Biotechnol. 40 1229–47
[214] ZhangZX,Wen F, SunZD,GuoXG,HeTYY andLeeC 2022 Artificial intelligence-enabled sensing technologies in the 5G/internet of things era: from virtual reality/augmented reality to the digital twin Adv. Intell. Syst. 4 2100228