Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the von Neumann neighborhood (left) and Moore neighborhood (right). The gray cells indicate the corresponding neighbors of the central cell.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the modified floor field. The gray cells represent the cells occupied by walls or obstacles, the red line represents the exit centerline, and the black frame area represents the hypothetical exit area Z. The exit area Z is divided into two equal areas A and B by the exit centerline.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the experimental scenario. The black cells are occupied by walls or obstacles, gray cells are occupied by pedestrians, and A and B are two different exits.

Fig. 4. Effect of K_C on the evacuation time of two exits. Last_A and last_B respectively indicate the time when the last person evacuated exits A and B with different K_C. Evacuation time is the larger value between last_A and last_B with the same K_C.

Fig. 5. Effect of K_C on the number of people evacuated through two exits. Number_A and number_B respectively represent the number of people using exit A and exit B to evacuate.

Fig. 6. Effect of K_C on evacuation time under different numbers of people T.

Fig. 7. Effect of K_R on the evacuation time of two exits. Last_A and last_B respectively indicate the time when the last person evacuated exits A and B with different K_R. Evacuation time is the larger value between last_A and last_B with the same K_R.

Fig. 8. Space usage intensity map of the model without MFF.

Fig. 9. Space usage intensity map of the model with MFF.

Fig. 10. Space usage intensity map of Pathfinder.

Fig. 11. Screenshot of the simulation process of the conventional CA model. Each gray dot in the picture represents a person. Screenshot time is after the start of simulation: panels (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h) denote 0 s, 15 s, 30 s, 45 s, 60 s, 75 s, 90 s, and 115 s, respectively.

Fig. 12. Screenshot of the simulation process of the improved CA model with MFF. Each gray dot in the picture represents a person. Screenshot time is after the start of simulation: panels (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h) denote 0 s, 15 s, 30 s, 45 s, 60 s, 75 s, 90 s, and 115 s, respectively.

Table 1. Results of the evacuation simulation of the three models.