[1] Su M and Song Y L 2022 Printable smart materials and devices: strategies and applications Chem. Rev. 122 5144–64

[2] Falahati M, Ahmadvand P, Safaee S, Chang Y C, Lyu Z, Chen R, Li L and Lin Y H 2020 Smart polymers and nanocomposites for 3D and 4D printing Mater. Today 40 215–45

[3] Chen T, Pauly M and Reis P M 2021 A reprogrammable mechanical metamaterial with stable memory Nature 589 386–90

[4] Gu D D, Shi X Y, Poprawe R, Bourell D L, Setchi R and Zhu J H 2021 Material-structure-performance integrated laser-metal additive manufacturing Science 372 eabg1487

[5] Zhao S et al 2020 Additive manufacturing of silica aerogels Nature 584 387–92

[6] Truby R L and Lewis J A 2016 Printing soft matter in three dimensions Nature 540 371–8

[7] Martin J H, Yahata B D, Hundley J M, Mayer J A, Schaedler T A and Pollock T M 2017 3D printing of high-strength aluminium alloys Nature 549 365–569

[8] Wallin T J, Pikul J and Shepherd R F 2018 3D printing of soft robotic systems Nat. Rev. Mater. 3 84–100

[9] Zhang Y H, Zhang F, Yan Z, Ma Q, Li X L, Huang Y G and Rogers J A 2017 Printing, folding and assembly methods for forming 3D mesostructures in advanced materials Nat. Rev. Mater. 2 17019

[10] Choong Y Y C, Tan H W, Patel D C, Choong W T N, Chen CH, Low H Y, Tan M J, PatelC D and Chua C K 2020 The global rise of 3D printing during the COVID-19 pandemic Nat. Rev. Mater. 5 637–9

[11] Momeni F, Hassani N S M M, Liu X and Ni J 2017 A review of 4D printing Mater. Des. 122 42–79

[12] Kuang X, Roach D J, Wu J T, Hamel C M, Ding Z, Wang T J, Dunn M L and Qi H J 2019 Advances in 4D printing: materials and applications Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1805290

[13] Wu J J, Huang L M, Zhao Q and Xie T 2018 4D printing: history and recent progress Chin. J. Polym. Sci. 36 563–75

[14] Tibbits S 2013 The emergence of “4D printing” (available at: www.ted.com/talks/skylar_tibbits_the_emergence_of_4d_printing)

[15] Ge Q, Qi H J and Dunn M L 2013 Active materials by four-dimension printing Appl. Phys. Lett. 103131901

[16] Tibbits S 2012 Design to self-assembly Archit. Des. 82 68–73

[17] González-Henríquez C M, Sarabia-Vallejos M A and Rodriguez-Hernandez J 2019 Polymers for additive manufacturing and 4D-printing: materials, methodologies, and biomedical applications Prog. Polym. Sci. 94 57–116

[18] Rastogi P and Kandasubramanian B 2019 Breakthrough in the printing tactics for stimuli-responsive materials: 4D printing Biochem. Eng. J. 366 264–304

[19] ChoiJ,Kwon OC,JoW, LeeHJandMoonMW20154D printing technology: a review 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2 159–67

[20] Hann S Y, Cui H T, Nowicki M and Zhang L G 2020 4D printing soft robotics for biomedical applications Addit. Manuf. 36 101567

[21] Zolfagharian A, Kaynak A and Kouzani A 2020 Closed-loop 4D-printed soft robots Mater. Des. 188 108411

[22] Khalid M Y, Arif Z U, Ahmed W, Umer R, Zolfagharian A and Bodaghi M 2022 4D printing: technological developments in robotics applications Sens. Actuators A 343 113670

[23] YangGH,Yeo M,Koo YWandKimGH20194D bioprinting: technological advances in biofabrication Macromol. Biosci. 19 1800441

[24] Wang Y, Cui H T, Esworthy T, Mei D Q, Wang Y C and Zhang L G 2022 Emerging 4D printing strategies for next-generation tissue regeneration and medical devices Adv. Mater. 34 2109198

[25] LuiYS,Sow WT, Tan LP, Wu YL,LaiYKandLiHQ 2019 4D printing and stimuli-responsive materials in biomedical aspects Acta Biomater. 92 19–36

[26] McLellan K, Sun Y C and Naguib H E 2022 A review of 4D printing: materials, structures, and designs towards the printing of biomedical wearable devices Bioprinting 27 e00217

[27] Biswas M C, Chakraborty S, Bhattacharjee A and Mohammed Z 2021 4D printing of shape memory materials for textiles: mechanism, mathematical modeling, and challenges Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 2100257

[28] Wang X Q, Chan K H, Cheng Y, Ding T P, Li T T, Achavananthadith S, Ahmet S, Ho J S and Ho G W 2020 Somatosensory, light-driven, thin-film robots capable of integrated perception and motility Adv. Mater. 32 2000351

[29] Mahmud M A P, Tat T, Xiao X, Adhikary P and Chen J 2021 Advances in 4D-printed physiological monitoring sensors Exploration 1 20210033

[30] Lu X L, Ambulo C P, Wang S T, Rivera-Tarazona L K, Kim H, Searles K and Ware T H 2021 4D-printing of photoswitchable actuators Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 60 5536–43

[31] Liu G et al 2021 Additive manufacturing of structural materials Mater. Sci. Eng. R 145 100596

[32] Liu X et al 2022 Recent advances in stimuli-responsive shape-morphing hydrogels Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2203323

[33] Spiegel C A, Hackner M, Bothe V P, Spatz J P and Blasco E 2022 4D printing of shape memory polymers: from macro to micro Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2110580

[34] Fu P et al 2022 4D printing of polymers: techniques, materials, and prospects Prog. Polym. Sci. 126 101506

[35] Demoly F, Dunn M L, Wood K L, Qi H J and André J C 2021 The status, barriers, challenges, and future in design for 4D printing Mater. Des. 212 110193

[36] Miao S et al 2017 4D printing of polymeric materials for tissue and organ regeneration Mater. Today 20 577–91

[37] Ge Q, Sakhaei A H, Lee H, Dunn C K, Fang N X and Dunn M L 2016 Multimaterial 4D printing with tailorable shape memory polymers Sci. Rep. 6 31110

[38] Lyu Z et al 2021 Design and manufacture of 3D-printed batteries Joule 5 89–114

[39] Lee A Y, An J and Chua C K 2017 Two-way 4D printing: a review on the reversibility of 3D-printed shape memory materials Engineering 3 663–74

[40] XiaYL,HeY, ZhangFH,LiuYJandLengJS2021A review of shape memory polymers and composites: mechanisms, materials, and applications Adv. Mater. 33 2000713

[41] ZhangJF, YinZF, RenLQ,LiuQP, RenL,YangXand Zhou X L 2022 Advances in 4D printed shape memory polymers: from 3D printing, smart excitation, and response to applications Adv. Mater. Technol. 7 2101568

[42] Zhang W et al 2021 Structural multi-colour invisible inks with submicron 4D printing of shape memory polymers Nat. Commun. 12 112

[43] Zhang B et al 2021 Mechanically robust and UV-curable shape-memory polymers for digital light processing based 4D printing Adv. Mater. 33 2101298

[44] Zhang Q, Kuang X, Weng S Y, Yue L, Roach D J, Fang D N and Qi H J 2021 Shape-memory balloon structures by pneumatic multi-material 4D printing Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 2010872

[45] Zhang Q, Kuang X, Weng S Y, Zhao Z A, Chen H S, Fang D N and Qi H J 2020 Rapid volatilization induced mechanically robust shape-morphing structures toward 4D printing ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 17979–87

[46] KuangX,ChenKJ,DunnCK,Wu JT, LiVCFandQiHJ 2018 3D printing of highly stretchable, shape-memory, and self-healing elastomer toward novel 4D printing ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 7381–8

[47] Peng W J et al 2020 Light-coded digital crystallinity patterns toward bioinspired 4D transformation of shape-memory polymers Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 2000522

[48] ZhangY, HuangLM,SongHJ,NiCJ,Wu JJ,ZhaoQand Xie T 2019 4D printing of a digital shape memory polymer with tunable high performance ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 32408–13

[49] Li A, Challapalli A and Li G Q 2019 4D printing of recyclable lightweight architectures using high recovery stress shape memory polymer Sci. Rep. 9 7621

[50] Zarek M, Layani M, Cooperstein I, Sachyani E, Cohn D and Magdassi S 2016 3D printing of shape memory polymers for flexible electronic devices Adv. Mater. 28 4449–54

[51] Kotikian A, Morales J M, Lu A, Mueller J, Davidson Z S, Boley J W and Lewis J A 2021 Innervated, self-sensing liquid crystal elastomer actuators with closed loop control Adv. Mater. 33 2101814

[52] Sydney Gladman A, Matsumoto E A, Nuzzo R G, Mahadevan L and Lewis J A 2016 Biomimetic 4D printing Nat. Mater. 15 413–8

[53] Ze Q, Kuang X, Wu S, Wong J, Montgomery S M, Zhang R D,KovitzJM, YangF Y, QiHJ andZhao R K 2020 Magnetic shape memory polymers with integrated multifunctional shape manipulation Adv. Mater. 32 1906657

[54] Kim D, Ferretto I, Leinenbach C and Lee W 2022 3D and 4D printing of complex structures of Fe-Mn-Si-based shape memory alloy using laser powder bed fusion Adv. Mater. Interfaces 9 2200171

[55] Liu G, Zhao Y, Wu G and Lu J 2018 Origami and 4D printing of elastomer-derived ceramic structures Sci. Adv. 4 eaat0641

[56] WeiHQ,ZhangQW, Yao YT, LiuLW, LiuYJand Leng J S 2017 Direct-write fabrication of 4D active shape-changing structures based on a shape memory polymer and its nanocomposite ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 876–83

[57] Del Pozo M, Sol J A H P, Schenning A P H J and Debije M G 2022 4D printing of liquid crystals: what’s right for me? Adv. Mater. 34 2104390

[59] ZhaiF, FengYY, LiZY, XieYX,GeJ,WangH,QiuW and Feng W 2021 4D-printed untethered self-propelling soft robot with tactile perception: rolling, racing, and exploring Matter 4 3313–26

[60] Yuan C, Roach D J, Dunn C K, Mu Q Y, Kuang X, Yakacki C M, Wang T J, Yu K and Qi H J 2017 3D printed reversible shape changing soft actuators assisted by liquid crystal elastomers Soft Matter 13 5558–68

[61] ZhangC,LuXL,FeiGX,WangZH,XiaHSandZhaoY 2019 4D printing of a liquid crystal elastomer with a controllable orientation gradient ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 44774–82

[62] Kim K, Guo Y H, Bae J, Choi S, Song H Y, Park S, Hyun K and Ahn S K 2021 4D printing of hygroscopic liquid crystal elastomer actuators Small 17 2100910

[63] Champeau M, Heinze D A, Viana T N, de Souza E R, Chinellato A C and Titotto S 2020 4D printing of hydrogels: a review Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 1910606

[64] HuYL et al 2020 Botanical-inspired 4D printing of hydrogel at the microscale Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 1907377

[65] Kirillova A, Maxson R, Stoychev G, Gomillion C T and Ionov L 2017 4D biofabrication using shape-morphing hydrogels Adv. Mater. 29 1703443

[66] Han D, Lu Z C, Chester S A and Lee H 2018 Micro 3D printing of a temperature-responsive hydrogel using projection micro-stereolithography Sci. Rep. 8 1963

[67] Naficy S, Gately R, Gorkin I I I R, Xin H and Spinks G M 2017 4D printing of reversible shape morphing hydrogel structures Macromol. Mater. Eng. 302 1600212

[68] GuoJH,ZhangRR,ZhangLNandCaoXD20184D printing of robust hydrogels consisted of agarose nanofibers and polyacrylamide ACS Macro Lett. 7 442–6

[69] Han D, Farino C, Yang C, Scott T, Browe D, Choi W, Freeman J W and Lee H 2018 Soft robotic manipulation and locomotion with a 3D printed electroactive hydrogel ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 17512–8

[70] ZhaoZA,Wu JT, MuXM,ChenHS,QiHJandFangDN 2017 Desolvation induced origami of photocurable polymers by digit light processing Macromol. Rapid Commun. 38 1600625

[71] Bakarich S E, Gorkin I I I R, Panhuis M I H and Spinks G M 2015 4D printing with mechanically robust, thermally actuating hydrogels Macromol. Rapid Commun. 36 1211–7

[72] Yang C, Boorugu M, Dopp A, Ren J, Martin R, Han D, Choi W and Lee H 2019 4D printing reconfigurable, deployable and mechanically tunable metamaterials Mater. Horiz. 6 1244–50

[73] Wu D,LengYM,Fan CJ,XuZY, LiL,ShiLY, YangKK and Wang Y Z 2022 4D printing of a fully biobased shape memory copolyester via a UV-assisted FDM strategy ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 10 6304–12

[74] CuiCH,AnL,ZhangZL,JiMK,ChenK,YangYX, Su Q, Wang F, Cheng Y L and Zhang Y F 2022 Reconfigurable 4D printing of reprocessable and mechanically strong polythiourethane covalent adaptable networks Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2203720

[75] López-Valdeolivas M, Liu D Q, Broer D J and Sánchez-Somolinos C 2018 4D printed actuators with soft-robotic functions Macromol. Rapid Commun. 39 1700710

[76] Davidson E C, Kotikian A, Li S C, Aizenberg J and Lewis J A 2020 3D printable and reconfigurable liquid crystal elastomers with light-induced shape memory via dynamic bond exchange Adv. Mater. 32 1905682

[77] SolJAHP, SmitsLG,SchenningAPHJandDebijeMG 2022 Direct ink writing of 4D structural colors Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2201766

[78] HuangLM,JiangRQ,Wu JJ,SongJZ,BaiH,LiBG, Zhao Q and Xie T 2017 Ultrafast digital printing toward 4D shape changing materials Adv. Mater. 29 1605390

[79] Ding A X, Jeon O, Cleveland D, Gasvoda K L, Wells D, Lee S J and Alsberg E 2022 Jammed micro-flake hydrogel for four-dimensional living cell bioprinting Adv. Mater. 34 2109394

[80] Narupai B, Smith P T and Nelson A 2021 4D printing of multi-stimuli responsive protein-based hydrogels for autonomous shape transformations Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 2011012

[81] Schwartz J J and Boydston A J 2019 Multimaterial actinic spatial control 3D and 4D printing Nat. Commun. 10 791

[82] LiYY, ZhengWH,LiB,DongJD,GaoGLandJiangZX 2022 Double-layer temperature-sensitive hydrogel fabricated by 4D printing with fast shape deformation Colloids Surf. A 648 129307

[83] Wang J Y, Jin F, Dong X Z, Liu J and Zheng M L 2022 Flytrap inspired pH-driven 3D hydrogel actuator by femtosecond laser microfabrication Adv. Mater. Technol. 7 2200276

[84] Hiendlmeier L, Teshima T F, Zurita F, Url H, Rinklin P and Wolfrum B 2022 A superabsorbent sodium polyacrylate printing resin as actuator material in 4D printing Macromol. Mater. Eng. 307 2200306

[85] Miksch C E, Skillin N P, Kirkpatrick B E, Hach G K, Rao V V, White T J and Anseth K S 2022 4D printing of extrudable and degradable poly(ethylene glycol) microgel scaffolds for multidimensional cell culture Small 18 2200951

[86] Qu G et al 2022 4D-printed bilayer hydrogel with adjustable bending degree for enteroatmospheric fistula closure Mater. Today Bio 16 100363

[87] Kim Y, Yuk H, Zhao R K, Chester S A and Zhao X H 2018 Printing ferromagnetic domains for untethered fast-transforming soft materials Nature 558 274–9

[88] ZhuPF, YangWY, WangR,GaoS,LiBandLiQ20184D printing of complex structures with a fast response time to magnetic stimulus ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 36435–42

[89] Kuhnt T, Camarero-Espinosa S, Takhsha Ghahfarokhi M, Arreguín M, Cabassi R, Albertini F, Nieto D, Baker M B and Moroni L 2022 4D printed shape morphing biocompatible materials based on anisotropic ferromagnetic nanoparticles Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2202539

[90] LuHZ,YangC,LuoX,MaHW, SongB,LiYY and Zhang L C 2019 Ultrahigh-performance TiNi shape memory alloy by 4D printing Mater. Sci. Eng. A 763 138166

[91] Yao T, WangYQ,ZhuBT, WeiD,YangYandHanXX 2021 4D printing and collaborative design of highly flexible shape memory alloy structures: a case study for a metallic robot prototype Smart Mater. Struct. 30 015018

[93] Xia X X, Afshar A, Yang H, Portela C M, Kochmann D M, Di Leo C V and Greer J R 2019 Electrochemically reconfigurable architected materials Nature 573 205–13

[94] Mao Y Q, Ding Z, Yuan C, Ai S G, Isakov M, Wu J T, Wang T J, Dunn M L and Qi H J 2016 3D printed reversible shape changing components with stimuli responsive materials Sci. Rep. 6 24761

[95] You D et al 2021 4D printing of multi-responsive membrane for accelerated in vivo bone healing via remote regulation of stem cell fate Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 2103920

[96] Choong Y Y C, Maleksaeedi S, Eng H, Yu S Z, Wei J and Su P C 2020 High speed 4D printing of shape memory polymers with nanosilica Appl. Mater. Today 18 100515

[97] DingZ,Yuan C,PengXR,WangTJ,QiHJandDunnML 2017 Direct 4D printing via active composite materials Sci. Adv. 3 e1602890

[98] LinC,LvJX,LiYS,ZhangFH,LiJR,LiuYJ,LiuLW and Leng J S 2019 4D-printed biodegradable and remotely controllable shape memory occlusion devices Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 1906569

[99] Chen D et al 2020 4D printing strain self-sensing and temperature self-sensing integrated sensor–actuator with bioinspired gradient gaps Adv. Sci. 7 2000584

[100] Mariani S, Corsi M, Paghi A, La Mattina A A, Strambini L, Frontini F P, Giuseppe G D and Barillaro G 2022 4D printing of plasmon-encoded tunable polydimethylsiloxane lenses for on-field microscopy of microbes Adv. Opt. Mater. 10 2101610

[101] RenLQ,LiBQ,LiuQP, RenL,SongZY, ZhouXLand Gao P 2021 4D printing dual stimuli-responsive bilayer structure toward multiple shape-shifting Front. Mater. 8 655160

[102] Cui H T, Miao S D, Esworthy T, Lee S J, Zhou X, Hann S Y, Webster T J, Harris B T and Zhang L G 2019 A novel near-infrared light responsive 4D printed nanoarchitecture with dynamically and remotely controllable transformation Nano Res. 12 1381–8

[103] Fang Z Z, Song H J, Zhang Y, Jin B J, Wu J J, Zhao Q and Xie T 2020 Modular 4D printing via interfacial welding of digital light-controllable dynamic covalent polymer networks Matter 2 1187–97

[104] Koh T Y and Sutradhar A 2022 Untethered selectively actuated microwave 4D printing through ferromagnetic PLA Addit. Manuf. 56 102866

[105] Zhang H, Huang S, Sheng J, Fan L S, Zhou J Z, Shan M Y, Wei J A, Wang C, Yang H W and Lu J Z 2022 4D printing of Ag nanowire-embedded shape memory composites with stable and controllable electrical responsivity: implications for flexible actuators ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 5 6221–31

[106] Lyu Z et al 2022 Direct ink writing of programmable functional silicone-based composites for 4D printing applications Interdiscip. Mater. 1 507–16

[107] Zhang F H, Wang L L, Zheng Z C, Liu Y J and Leng J S 2019 Magnetic programming of 4D printed shape memory composite structures Composites A 125 105571

[108] Ma S Q, Jiang Z Y, Wang M, Zhang L, Liang Y H, Zhang Z H, Ren L and Ren L Q 2021 4D printing of PLA/PCL shape memory composites with controllable sequential deformation Bio-Des. Manuf. 4 867–78

[109] Yang C, Luo J, Polunas M, Bosnjak N, Chueng S T D, Chadwick M, Sabaawy H E, Chester S A, Lee K B and Lee H 2020 4D-printed transformable tube array for high-throughput 3D cell culture and histology Adv. Mater. 32 2004285

[110] Xin X Z, Liu L W, Liu Y J and Leng J S 2020 4D printing auxetic metamaterials with tunable, programmable, and reconfigurable mechanical properties Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 2004226

[111] Tibbits S 2014 4D printing: multi-material shape change Archit. Des. 84 116–21

[112] Boley J W, van Rees W M, Lissandrello C, Horenstein M N, Truby R L, Kotikian A, Lewis J A and Mahadevan L 2019 Shape-shifting structured lattices via multimaterial 4D printing Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116 20856–62

[113] Huang W M, Ding Z, Wang C C, Wei J, Zhao Y and Purnawali H 2010 Shape memory materials Mater. Today 13 54–61

[114] Baker A B, Bates S R G, Llewellyn-Jones T M, Valori L P B, Dicker M P M and Trask R S 2019 4D printing with robust thermoplastic polyurethane hydrogel-elastomer trilayers Mater. Des. 163 107544

[115] Sossou G, Demoly F, Belkebir H, Qi H J, Gomes S and Montavon G 2019 Design for 4D printing: a voxel-based modeling and simulation of smart materials Mater. Des. 175 107798

[116] ShenZH,LiuHX,ShenY, HuJM,ChenLQandNanCW 2022 Machine learning in energy storage materials Interdiscip. Mater. 1 175–95

[117] Sun X H, Yue L, Yu L X, Shao H, Peng X R, Zhou K, Demoly F, Zhao R K and Qi H J 2022 Machine learning-evolutionary algorithm enabled design for 4D-printed active composite structures Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 2109805

[118] Yu Y X, Qian K R, Yang H, Yao L N and Zhang Y J 2022 Hybrid IGA-FEA of fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites for forward design of AI-enabled 4D printing J. Mater. Process. Technol. 302 117497

[119] Zolfagharian A, Denk M, Bodaghi M, Kouzani A Z and Kaynak A 2020 Topology-optimized 4D printing of a soft actuator Acta Mech. Solida Sin. 33 418–30

[120] Zou B H, Song C, He Z P and Ju J 2022 Encoding of direct 4D printing of isotropic single-material system for double-curvature and multimodal morphing Extreme Mech. Lett. 54 101779

[121] Ding H, Zhang X, Liu Y and Ramakrishna S 2019 Review of mechanisms and deformation behaviors in 4D printing Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 105 4633–49

[122] Pinho A C, Buga C S and Piedade A P 2020 The chemistry behind 4D printing Appl. Mater. Today 19 100611

[123] Yang Y, Wang H M, Zhang S, Wei Y, He X M, Wang J L, Zhang Y Y and Ji Y 2021 Vitrimer-based soft actuators with multiple responsiveness and self-healing ability triggered by multiple stimuli Matter 4 3354–65

[124] Peng B G, Yang Y C and Cavicchi K A 2020 Sequential shapeshifting 4D printing: programming the pathway of multi-shape transformation by 3D printing stimuli-responsive polymers Multifunct. Mater. 3 042002

[125] Liu J Y et al 2019 Dual-gel 4D printing of bioinspired tubes ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11 8492–8

[126] Del Barrio J and Sánchez-Somolinos C 2019 Light to shape the future: from photolithography to 4D printing Adv. Opt. Mater. 7 1900598

[127] LiuXJ,WeiMX,WangQ,TianYJ,HanJM,GuHC, DingH B, Chen Q,ZhouKandGu ZZ 2021 Capillary-force-driven self-assembly of 4D-printed microstructures Adv. Mater. 33 2100332

[128] Grigoryan B et al 2019 Multivascular networks and functional intravascular topologies within biocompatible hydrogels Science 364 458–64

[129] Villar G, Graham A D and Bayley H 2013 A tissue-like printed material Science 340 48–52

[130] HuangLB,HanJC,ChenSJ,SunZH,DaiXY, GePH, ZhaoC H, Zheng Q Q, Sun F CandHao J H 2021 4D-printed self-recovered triboelectric nanogenerator for energy harvesting and self-powered sensor Nano Energy 84 105873

[131] Kuribayashi-Shigetomi K, Onoe H, Takeuchi S and Han A 2012 Cell Origami: self-folding of three-dimensional cell-laden microstructures driven by cell traction force PLoS One 7 e51085

[132] Hao Y J, Wu C Y, Su Y C, Curran J, Henstock J R and Tseng F 2022 A 4D printed self-assembling PEGDA microscaffold fabricated by digital light processing for arthroscopic articular cartilage tissue engineering Prog. Addit. Manuf. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-022- 00360-0)

[133] SongZY, RenLQ,ZhaoC,LiuHL,Yu ZL,LiuQPand Ren L 2020 Biomimetic nonuniform, dual-stimuli self-morphing enabled by gradient four-dimensional printing ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 6351–61

[134] Wu H Z, Zhang X, Ma Z, Zhang C, Ai J W, Chen P, Yan C Z, Su B and Shi Y S 2020 A material combination concept to realize 4D printed products with newly emerging property/functionality Adv. Sci. 7 1903208

[135] CuiCX,KimDO,PackMY, HanB,HanL,SunYand Han L H 2020 4D printing of self-folding and cell-encapsulating 3D microstructures as scaffolds for tissue-engineering applications Biofabrication 12 045018

[136] Russo A, Robb B, Soldini S, Paoletti P, Bailet G, McInnes C R, Reveles J, Sugihara A K, Bonardi S and Mori O 2022 Mechanical design of self-reconfiguring 4D-printed origamisats: a new concept for solar sailing Front. Space Technol. 3 876585

[137] Lee J, Kim H C, Choi J W and Lee I H 2017 A review on 3D printed smart devices for 4D printing Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.-Green Technol. 4 373–83

[138] Kumar S B, Jeevamalar J, Ramu P, Suresh G and Senthilnathan K 2021 Evaluation in 4D printing-a review Mater. Today Proc. 45 1433–7

[139] Zolfagharian A, Kaynak A, Khoo S Y and Kouzani A 2018 Pattern-driven 4D printing Sens. Actuators A 274 231–43

[140] Lin C, Liu L W, Liu Y J and Leng J S 2021 4D printing of bioinspired absorbable left atrial appendage occluders: a proof-of-concept study ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13 12668–78

[141] Zarek M, Mansour N, Shapira S and Cohn D 2017 4D printing of shape memory-based personalized endoluminal medical devices Macromol. Rapid Commun. 38 1600628

[142] Grinberg D, Siddique S, Le M Q, Liang R, Capsal J F and Cottinet P J 2019 4D printing based piezoelectric composite for medical applications J. Polym. Sci. B 57 109–15

[143] Cecchini L, Mariani S, Ronzan M, Mondini A, Pugno N M and Mazzolai B 2023 4D printing of humidity-driven seed inspired soft robots Adv. Sci. 10 2205146

[144] Wu L, Huang J W, Zhai M L, Sun B, Chang H D, Huang S and Liu H G 2021 Deformable bowtie antenna realized by 4D printing Electronics 10 1792

[145] Jeong H, Park E and Lim S 2021 Four-dimensional printed shape memory metasurface to memorize absorption and reflection functions ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13 59487–96

[146] Sundaram S, Kim D S, Baldo M A, Hayward R C and Matusik W 2017 3D-printed self-folding electronics ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 32290–8

[147] van Manen T, Janbaz S, Jansen K M B and Zadpoor A A 2021 4D printing of reconfigurable metamaterials and devices Commun. Mater. 2 56

[148] Bandyopadhyay A and Heer B 2018 Additive manufacturing of multi-material structures Mater. Sci. Eng. R 129 1–16

[149] Le Duigou A, Correa D, Ueda M, Matsuzaki R and Castro M 2020 A review of 3D and 4D printing of natural fibre biocomposites Mater. Des. 194 108911

[150] Khare V, Sonkaria S, Lee G Y, Ahn S H and Chu W S 2017 From 3D to 4D printing-design, material and fabrication for multi-functional multi-materials Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf.-Green Technol. 4 291–9

[151] Joshi S, Rawat K, Karunakaran C, Rajamohan V, Mathew A T, Koziol K, Thakur V K and Balan A S S 2020 4D printing of materials for the future: opportunities and challenges Appl. Mater. Today 18 100490

[152] Rafiee M, Farahani R D and Therriault D 2020 Multi-material 3D and 4D printing: a survey Adv. Sci. 7 1902307

[153] Cataldi P, Liu M F, Bissett M and Kinloch I A 2022 A review on printing of responsive smart and 4D structures using 2D materials Adv. Mater. Technol. 7 2200025

[154] Han M Y, Li L and Zhao J 2022 Volatile organic compound emissions from 4D printing: effects of material composition and external stimulus Addit. Manuf. 56 102894

[155] Skylar-Scott M A, Mueller J, Visser C W and Lewis J A 2019 Voxelated soft matter via multimaterial multinozzle 3D printing Nature 575 330–5

[156] Ge Q, Li Z Q, Wang Z L, Kowsari K, Zhang W, He X N, Zhou J L and Fang N X 2020 Projection micro stereolithography based 3D printing and its applications Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 2 022004

[157] Nishiguchi A, Zhang H, Schweizerhof S, Schulte M F, Mourran A and M.ller M 2020 4D printing of a light-driven soft actuator with programmed printing density ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 12176–85

[158] Jung W et al 2021 Three-dimensional nanoprinting via charged aerosol jets Nature 592 54–59

[159] Spiegel C A, Hippler M, Münchinger A, Bastmeyer M, Barner-Kowollik C, Wegener M and Blasco E 2020 4D printing at the microscale Adv. Funct. Mater. 30 1907615

[160] Peng X R, Wu S, Sun X H, Yue L, Montgomery S M, Demoly F, Zhou K, Zhao R R and Qi H J 2022 4D printing of freestanding liquid crystal elastomers via hybrid additive manufacturing Adv. Mater. 34 2204890

[161] Wei C, Zhang Z Z, Cheng D X, Sun Z, Zhu M H and Li L 2021 An overview of laser-based multiple metallic material additive manufacturing: from macro-to micro-scales Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 3 012003

[162] Khorsandi D et al 2021 3D and 4D printing in dentistry and maxillofacial surgery: printing techniques, materials, and applications Acta Biomater. 122 26–49

[163] ChenX,HanSY, Wu WH,Wu ZH,Yuan Y, Wu Jand Liu C S 2022 Harnessing 4D printing bioscaffolds for advanced orthopedics Small 18 2106824

[164] Jin D D, Chen Q Y, Huang T Y, Huang J Y, Zhang L and Duan H L 2020 Four-dimensional direct laser writing of reconfigurable compound micromachines Mater. Today 32 19–25

[165] CenSY, LiZH,GuoZA,LiHR,ShiJY, HuangXW, Zou X B and Holmes M 2022 4D printing of a citrus pectin/β-CD Pickering emulsion: a study on temperature induced color transformation Addit. Manuf. 56 102925

[166] Osouli-Bostanabad K, Masalehdan T, Kapsa R M I, Quigley A, Lalatsa A, Bruggeman K F, Franks S J, Williams R J and Nisbet D R 2022 Traction of 3D and 4D printing in the healthcare industry: from drug delivery and analysis to regenerative medicine ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 8 2764–97

[167] Zhou K K, Dai K, Liu C T and Shen C Y 2020 Flexible conductive polymer composites for smart wearable strain sensors SmartMat 1 e1010

[168] WangJC,WangZG,SongZY,RenLQ,LiuQPandRenL 2019 Biomimetic shape-color double-responsive 4D printing Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 1900293

[169] Taylor J M, Luan H W, Lewis J A, Rogers J A, Nuzzo R G and Braun P V 2022 Biomimetic and biologically compliant soft architectures via 3D and 4D assembly methods: a perspective Adv. Mater. 34 2108391