[1] Isager J 1991 Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny’s Chapters on the History of Art (New York: Routledge) pp 256

[3] Noréus D 2000 Substitution of Rechargeable NiCd Batteries: A Background Document to Evaluate the Possibilities of Finding Alternatives to NiCd Batteries (Stockholm: Arrhenius Laboratory)

[4] Banhart J and Weaire D 2002 On the road again: metal foams find favor Phys. Today 55 37–42

[5] Klawitter J J and Weinstein A M 1974 The status of porous materials to obtain direct skeletal attachment by tissue ingrowth Acta Orthop. Belg. 40 755–65

[6] White E W, Weber J N, Roy D M, Owen E L, Chiroff R T and White R A 1975 Replamineform porous biomaterials for hard tissue implant applications J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 9 23–27

[7] Homsy C A, Cain T E, Kessler F B, Anderson M S and King J W 1972 Porous implant systems for prosthesis stabilization Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 89 220–35

[8] Cestro H J Jr, Salyer K E and Toranto I R 1975 Bone growth into porous carbon, polyethylene, and polypropylene prostheses J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 9 1–7

[9] Sauer B W, Weinstein A M, Klawitter J J, Hulbert S F, Leonard R B and Bagwell J G 1974 The role of porous polymeric materials in prosthesis attachment J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 8 145–53

[10] Klawitter J J, Bagwell J G, Weinstein A M, Sauer B W and Pruitt J R 1976 An evaluation of bone growth into porous high density polyethylene J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 10 311–23

[11] Spector M, Michno M J, Smarook W H and Kwiatkowski G T 1978 A high-modulus polymer for porous orthopedic implants: biomechanical compatibility of porous implants J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 12 665–77

[12] Lefebvre L P, Banhart J and Dunand D C 2008 Porous metals and metallic foams: current status and recent developments Adv. Eng. Mater. 10 775–87

[13] Ryan G, Pandit A and Apatsidis D P 2006 Fabrication methods of porous metals for use in orthopaedic applications Biomaterials 27 2651–70

[14] Weber J N and White E W 1972 Carbon-metal graded composites for permanent osseous attachment of non-porous metals Mater. Res. Bull. 7 1005–16

[15] Kr.ger H, Venesmaa P, Jurvelin J, Miettinen H, Suomalainen O and Alhava E 1998 Bone density at the proximal femur after total hip arthroplasty Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 352 66–74

[16] Krishna B V, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2007 Low stiffness porous Ti structures for load-bearing implants Acta Biomater. 3 997–1006

[17] Becker B S and Bolton J D 1997 Corrosion behaviour and mechanical properties of functionally gradient materials developed for possible hard-tissue applications J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 8 793–7

[18] Degischer H P and Kriszt B 2002 Handbook of Cellular Metals: Production, Processing, Applications (Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)

[19] Balla V K, Bodhak S, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2010 Porous tantalum structures for bone implants: fabrication, mechanical and in vitro biological properties Acta Biomater. 6 3349–59

[20] Aihara H, Zider J, Fanton G and Duerig T 2019 Combustion synthesis porous nitinol for biomedical applications Int. J. Biomater. 2019 4307461

[21] Bandyopadhyay A, Shivaram A, Tarafder S, Sahasrabudhe H, Banerjee D and Bose S 2017 In vivo response of laser processed porous titanium implants for load-bearing implants Ann. Biomed. Eng. 45 249–60

[22] Espa.na F A, Balla V K, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2010 Design and fabrication of CoCrMo alloy based novel structures for load bearing implants using laser engineered net shaping Mater. Sci. Eng. C 30 50–57

[23] Balla V K, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2010 Understanding compressive deformation in porous titanium Phil. Mag. 90 3081–94

[24] Bencharit S, Byrd W C, Altarawneh S, Hosseini B, Leong A, Reside G, Morelli T and Offenbacher S 2014 Development and applications of porous tantalum trabecular metal-enhanced titanium dental implants Clin. Implant Dent. Relat. Res. 16 817–26

[25] Ciliveri S and Bandyopadhyay A 2022 Influence of strut-size and cell-size variations on porous Ti6Al4V structures for load-bearing implants J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 126 105023

[26] Ip S W, Wang S W and Toguri J M 1999 Aluminum foam stabilization by solid particles Can. Metall. Q. 38 81–92

[27] Kaptay G 2003 Interfacial criteria for stabilization of liquid foams by solid particles Colloids Surf. A 230 67–80

[28] Hur B Y, Park S H and Hiroshi A 2003 Viscosity and surface tension of Al and effects of additional element Mater. Sci. Forum 439 51–56

[29] Beals J T and Thompson M S 1997 Density gradient effects on aluminium foam compression behaviour J. Mater. Sci. 32 3595–600

[30] Grenestedt J L 1998 Influence of imperfections on effective properties of cellular solids MRS Online Proc. Libr. 521 3–13

[31] Sanders W and Gibson L J 1998 Reduction in young’s modulus of aluminum foams due to cell wall curvature and corrugation MRS Online Proc. Libr. 521 53–57

[32] Sang H, Kenny L D and Jin I 1994 Process for producing shaped slabs of particle stabilized foamed metal U.S. Patent. No. 5,334,236A

[33] Surace R, De Filippis L A C, Niini E, Ludovico A D and Orkas J 2009 Morphological investigation of foamed aluminum parts produced by melt gas injection Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2009 506024

[34] Kenny L D and Thomas M 1994 Process for shape casting of particle stabilized metal foam U.S. Patent. No. 5,281,251A

[35] Mahajan S M and Jadhav G A 2015 Aluminum foaming for lighter structure Int. J. Comput. Eng. Res. 5 70–74

[36] Miyoshi T, Itoh M, Akiyama S and Kitahara A 2000 ALPORAS aluminum foam: production process, properties, and applications Adv. Eng. Mater. 2 179–83

[37] K.rner C and Singer R F 2000 Processing of metal foams—challenges and opportunities Adv. Eng. Mater. 2 159–65

[38] Simone A E and Gibson L J 1998 Aluminum foams produced by liquid-state processes Acta Mater. 46 3109–23

[39] Banhart J 2000 Manufacturing routes for metallic foams JOM 52 22–27

[40] Banhart J 2001 Manufacture, characterisation and application of cellular metals and metal foams Prog. Mater. Sci. 46 559–632

[41] K.rner C and Singer R 1999 Numerical simulation of foam formation and evolution with modified cellular automata Proc. Metal Foams and Porous Metal Structures (Bremen: MIT) pp 91–96

[42] Xue W C, Krishna B V, Bandyopadhyay A and Bose S 2007 Processing and biocompatibility evaluation of laser processed porous titanium Acta Biomater. 3 1007–18

[43] Hahn H and Palich W 1970 Preliminary evaluation of porous metal surfaced titanium for orthopedic implants J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 4 571–7

[44] YangYZ,TianJM,TianJT, ChenZQ,DengXJand Zhang D H 2000 Preparation of graded porous titanium coatings on titanium implant materials by plasma spraying J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 52 333–7

[45] Thieme M, Wieters K P, Bergner F, Scharnweber D, Worch H, Ndop J, Kim T J and Grill W 2001 Titanium powder sintering for preparation of a porous functionally graded material destined for orthopaedic implants J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 12 225–31

[46] Vu A A and Bose S 2020 Natural antibiotic oregano in hydroxyapatite-coated titanium reduces osteoclastic bone resorption for orthopedic and dental applications ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 52383–92

[47] Vu A A, Robertson S F, Ke D X, Bandyopadhyay A and Bose S 2019 Mechanical and biological properties of ZnO, SiO2, and Ag2O doped plasma sprayed hydroxyapatite coating for orthopaedic and dental applications Acta Biomater. 92 325–35

[48] Goodman S B and Gallo J 2019 Periprosthetic osteolysis: mechanisms, prevention and treatment J. Clin. Med. 8 2091

[49] Albrektsson T, Br.nemark P I, Hansson H A and Lindstr.m J 1981 Osseointegrated titanium implants: requirements for ensuring a long-lasting, direct bone-to-implant anchorage in man Acta Orthop. Scand. 52 155–70

[50] Camron H U, Pilliar R M and Macnab I 1976 The rate of bone ingrowth into porous metal J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 10 295–302

[51] Oh I H, Nomura N, Masahashi N and Hanada S 2003 Mechanical properties of porous titanium compacts prepared by powder sintering Scr. Mater. 49 1197–202

[52] Durmus F C and Jordá J M M 2021 Silver foams with hierarchical porous structures: from manufacturing to antibacterial activity ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13 35865–77

[53] Galante J and Rostoker W 1973 Fiber metal composites in the fixation of skeletal prosthesis J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 7 43–61

[54] R.nningen H, Solhelm L F and Langeland N 1984 Invasion of bone into porous fiber metal implants in cats Acta Orthop. Scand. 55 352–8

[55] Weiss M B 1986 Titanium fiber-mesh metal implant J. Oral Implantol. 12 498–507

[56] Hoshijima K, Yamamoto H and Yamashita H 1988 Experimental studies of titanium fiber metal implant for spine fusion Nippon Seikeigeka Gakkai Zasshi 62 399–413

[57] Martell J M, Pierson I I I R H, Jacobs J J, Rosenberg A G, Maley M and Galante J O 1993 Primary total hip reconstruction with a titanium fiber-coated prosthesis inserted without cement J. Bone Joint Surg. 75 554–71

[58] NiuWJ,BaiCG,QiuGB,WangQ,Wen LY, ChenDF and Dong L Y 2009 Preparation and characterization of porous titanium using space-holder technique Rare Met. 28 338–42

[59] Kotan G and Bor A S. 2007 Production and characterization of high porosity Ti-6Al-4V foam by space holder technique in powder metallurgy Turk. J. Eng. Environ. Sci. 31 149–56

[60] Jha N, Mondal D P, Majumdar J D, Badkul A, Jha A K and Khare A K 2013 Highly porous open cell Ti-foam using NaCl as temporary space holder through powder metallurgy route Mater. Des. 47 810–9

[61] Wen C E, Yamada Y, Shimojima K, Chino Y, Asahina T and Mabuchi M 2002 Processing and mechanical properties of autogenous titanium implant materials J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 13 397–401

[62] Guillon O, Gonzalez-Julian J, Dargatz B, Kessel T, Schierning G, R.thel J and Herrmann M 2014 Field-assisted sintering technology/spark plasma sintering: mechanisms, materials, and technology developments Adv. Eng. Mater. 16 830–49

[63] Sua′rez M, Fernández A, Mene′ndez J L, Torrecillas R, Kessel H U, Hennicke J, Kirchner R and Kessel T 2013 Challenges and opportunities for spark plasma sintering: a key technology for a new generation of materials Sintering Applications ed B Ertu.g (Rijeka: IntechOpen) (https://doi. org/10.5772/53706)

[64] Chen W, Anselmi-Tamburini U, Garay J E, Groza J R and Munir Z A 2005 Fundamental investigations on the spark plasma sintering/synthesis process: I Effect of dc pulsing on reactivity Mater. Sci. Eng. A 394 132–8

[65] Zhang L, Zhang Y Q, Jiang Y H and Zhou R 2015 Mechanical behaviors of porous Ti with high porosity and large pore size prepared by one-step spark plasma sintering technique Vacuum 122 187–94

[66] Quan Y J, Zhang F M, Rebl H, Nebe B, Ke.ler O and Burkel E 2013 Ti6Al4V foams fabricated by spark plasma sintering with post-heat treatment Mater. Sci. Eng. A 565 118–25

[67] Li J P, Li S H, de Groot K and Layrolle P 2001 Preparation and characterization of porous titanium Key Eng. Mater. 218–220 51–54

[68] Li J P, Li S H, de Groot K and Layrolle P 2003 Improvement of porous titanium with thicker struts Key Eng. Mater. 240–242 547–50

[69] Dunand D C 2004 Processing of titanium foams Adv. Eng. Mater. 6 369–76

[70] Stojanovic B D, Dzunuzovic A S and Ilic N I 2018 Review of methods for the preparation of magnetic metal oxides Magnetic, Ferroelectric, and Multiferroic Metal Oxides ed B D Stojanovic (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 333–59

[71] Sachhidananda S, Sarojini B K, Nithin K S, Shilpa K N, Raj B M J, Muthappa K A, Siddaramaiah H and Nisha A S A 2021 Metal oxide nanofillers introduced polymer-based composites with advanced optical, optoelectronic, and electrical energy storage functionalities Polymer-Based Advanced Functional Composites for Optoelectronic and Energy Applications ed N K Subramani, H Siddaramaiah and J H Lee (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 51–89

[72] Mukasyan A S and Manukyan K V 2019 One-and two-dimensional nanostructures prepared by combustion synthesis Nanomaterials Synthesis: Design, Fabrication and Applications ed Y B Pottathara, S Thomas, N Kalarikkal, Y Grohens and V Kokol (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 85–120

[73] Munir Z A and Anselmi-Tamburini U 1989 Self-propagating exothermic reactions: the synthesis of high-temperature materials by combustion Mater. Sci. Rep. 3 279–365

[74] Yi H C and Moore J J 1989 Combustion synthesis of TiNi intermetallic compounds J. Mater. Sci. 24 3449–55

[75] Zhang X, Ayers R A, Thorne K, Moore J J and Schowengerdt F 2001 Combustion synthesis of porous materials for bone replacement Biomed. Sci. Instrum. 37 463–8

[76] Yeh C L and Sung W Y 2004 Synthesis of NiTi intermetallics by self-propagating combustion J. Alloys Compd. 376 79–88

[77] Li Y H, Rong L J and Li Y Y 2001 Pore characteristics of porous NiTi alloy fabricated by combustion synthesis J. Alloys Compd. 325 259–62

[78] Adell R, Hansson B O, Br.nemark P I and Breine U 1970 Intra-osseous anchorage of dental prostheses Scand. J. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 4 19–34

[79] Bobyn J D, Stackpool G J, Hacking S A, Tanzer M and Krygier J J 1999 Characteristics of bone ingrowth and interface mechanics of a new porous tantalum biomaterial J. Bone Joint Surg. 81-B 907–14

[81] Zardiackas L D, Parsell D E, Dillon L D, Mitchell D W, Nunnery L A and Poggie R 2001 Structure, metallurgy, and mechanical properties of a porous tantalum foam J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 58 180–7

[82] LiX,WangL,Yu XM,FengYF, WangCT, YangKand Su D 2013 Tantalum coating on porous Ti6Al4V scaffold using chemical vapor deposition and preliminary biological evaluation Mater. Sci. Eng. C 33 2987–94

[83] Melican M C, Zimmerman M C, Dhillon M S, Ponnambalam A R, Curodeau A and Parsons J R 2001 Three-dimensional printing and porous metallic surfaces: a new orthopedic application J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 55 194–202

[84] Curodeau A, Sachs E and Caldarise S 2000 Design and fabrication of cast orthopedic implants with freeform surface textures from 3D printed ceramic shell J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 53 525–35

[85] Bandyopadhyay A, Bose S and Das S 2015 3D printing of biomaterials MRS Bull. 40 108–15

[86] Bose S, Vahabzadeh S and Bandyopadhyay A 2013 Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing Mater. Today 16 496–504

[87] LinT, WangXT, JinLP, LiWY, ZhangYX,WangAY, Peng J and Shao H P 2021 Manufacturing of porous magnesium scaffolds for bone tissue engineering by 3D gel-printing Mater. Des. 209 109948

[88] Bose S, Roy M and Bandyopadhyay A 2012 Recent advances in bone tissue engineering scaffolds Trends Biotechnol. 30 546–54

[89] Zhuang H Y, Han Y and Feng A L 2008 Preparation, mechanical properties and in vitro biodegradation of porous magnesium scaffolds Mater. Sci. Eng. C 28 1462–6

[90] Loughborough University 2021 About additive manufacturing (available at: www.lboro.ac.uk/research/ amrg/about/the7categoriesofadditivemanufacturing/)

[91] Krishna B V, Xue W C, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2008 Engineered porous metals for implants JOM 60 45–48

[92] Mullen L, Stamp R C, Brooks W K, Jones E and Sutcliffe C J 2009 Selective Laser Melting: a regular unit cell approach for the manufacture of porous, titanium, bone in-growth constructs, suitable for orthopedic applications J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 89B 325–34

[93] Parthasarathy J, Starly B, Raman S and Christensen A 2010 Mechanical evaluation of porous titanium (Ti6Al4V) structures with electron beam melting (EBM) J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 3 249–59

[94] Seagle S R, Martin R L and Bertea O 1962 Electron-beam melting JOM 14 812–20

[95] Murr L E, Gaytan S M, Martinez E, Medina F and Wicker R B 2012 Next generation orthopaedic implants by additive manufacturing using electron beam melting Int. J. Biomater. 2012 245727

[96] Sallica-Leva E, Jardini A L and Fogagnolo J B 2013 Microstructure and mechanical behavior of porous Ti-6Al-4V parts obtained by selective laser melting J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 26 98–108

[97] Hrabe N W, Heinl P, Flinn B, K.rner C and Bordia R K 2011 Compression-compression fatigue of selective electron beam melted cellular titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 99B 313–20

[98] Benedyk J C 2018 ARTICLE: additive manufacturing of aluminum alloys (available at: www.lightmetalage.com/ news/industry-news/3d-printing/article-additive- manufacturing-of-aluminum-alloys/)

[99] Singh R, Singh S and Hashmi M S J 2016 Implant materials and their processing technologies Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering (Amsterdam: Elsevier) (https://doi.org/10.1016/B978- 0-12-803581-8.04156-4)

[100] Kobryn P A and Semiatin S L 2001 Mechanical properties of laser-deposited Ti-6Al-4V 2001 Int. Solid Freeform Fabrication Symp. (Austin, TX) (https://doi.org/10.26153/ tsw/3261)

[101] Bandyopadhyay A, Krishna B V, Xue W C and Bose S 2009 Application of laser engineered net shaping (LENS) to manufacture porous and functionally graded structures for load bearing implants J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 20 29–34

[102] Ducheyne P 1983 In vitro corrosion study of porous metal fibre coatings for bone ingrowth Biomaterials 4 185–91

[103] Ducheyne P and Martens M 1986 Orderly oriented wire meshes as porous coatings on orthopaedic implants I: morphology Clin. Mater. 1 59–67

[104] Ducheyne P and Martens M 1986 Orderly oriented wire meshes as porous coatings on orthopaedic implants II: the pore size, interfacial bonding and microstructure after pressure sintering of titanium OOWM Clin. Mater. 1 91–98

[105] Markaki A E and Clyne T W 2004 Magneto-mechanical stimulation of bone growth in a bonded array of ferromagnetic fibres Biomaterials 25 4805–15

[106] Paulus J A, Parida G R, Tucker R D and Park J B 1997 Corrosion analysis of NiCu and PdCo thermal seed alloys used as interstitial hyperthermia implants Biomaterials 18 1609–14

[107] Vrijhoef M M A, Mezger P R, Van der Zel J M and Greener E H 1987 Corrosion of ferromagnetic alloys used for magnetic retention of overdentures J. Dent. Res. 66 1456–9

[108] Sivakumar M, Mudali U K and Rajeswari S 1993 Compatibility of ferritic and duplex stainless steels as implant materials: in vitro corrosion performance J. Mater.Sci. 28 6081–6

[109] Bobyn J D, Cameron H U, Abdulla D, Pilliar R M and Weatherly G C 1982 Biologic fixation and bone modeling with an unconstrained canine total knee prosthesis Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 166 301–12

[110] Martens M, Ducheyne P, De Meester P and Mulier J C 1980 Skeletal fixation of implants by bone ingrowth into surface pores Arch. Orthop. Trauma Surg. 97 111–6

[111] Bobyn J D, Pilliar R M, Cameron H U and Weatherly G C 1980 The optimum pore size for the fixation of porous-surfaced metal implants by the ingrowth of bone Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 150 263–70

[112] It.l. A I, Yl.nen H O, Ekholm C, Karlsson K H and Aro H T 2001 Pore diameter of more than 100 μm is not requisite for bone ingrowth in rabbits J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 58 679–83

[113] Bandyopadhyay A, Mitra I, Shivaram A, Dasgupta N and Bose S 2019 Direct comparison of additively manufactured porous titanium and tantalum implants towards in vivo osseointegration Addit. Manuf. 28 259–66

[114] Bandyopadhyay A, Shivaram A, Mitra I and Bose S 2019 Electrically polarized TiO2 nanotubes on Ti implants to enhance early-stage osseointegration Acta Biomater. 96 686–93

[115] Mitra I, Bose S, Dernell W S, Dasgupta N, Eckstrand C, Herrick J, Yaszemski M J, Goodman S B and Bandyopadhyay A 2021 3D Printing in alloy design to improve biocompatibility in metallic implants Mater. Today 45 20–34

[116] Bandyopadhyay A, Ghosh S, Boccaccini A R and Bose S 2021 3D printing of biomedical materials and devices J. Mater. Res. 36 3713–24

[117] Bandyopadhyay A, Ciliveri S and Bose S 2022 Metal additive manufacturing for load-bearing implants J. Indian Inst. Sci. 102 561–84

[118] Rho J Y, Kuhn-Spearing L and Zioupos P 1998 Mechanical properties and the hierarchical structure of bone Med. Eng. Phys. 20 92–102

[119] Poumarat G and Squire P 1993 Comparison of mechanical properties of human, bovine bone and a new processed bone xenograft Biomaterials 14 337–40

[120] Rho J Y, Roy M E, Tsui T Y and Pharr G M 1999 Elastic properties of microstructural components of human bone tissue as measured by nanoindentation J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 45 48–54

[121] Turner C H, Wang T and Burr D B 2001 Shear strength and fatigue properties of human cortical bone determined from pure shear tests Calcif. Tissue Int. 69 373–8

[122] Smith R L and Sandly G E 1922 An accurate method of determining the hardness of metals, with particular reference to those of a high degree of hardness Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 102 623–41

[123] Avila J D, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2018 Additive manufacturing of titanium and titanium alloys for biomedical applications Titanium in Medical and Dental Applications ed F H Froes and M Qian (Sawston: Woodhead Publishing) pp 325–43

[124] Singh R, Kurella A and Dahotre N B 2006 Laser surface modification of Ti-6Al-4V: wear and corrosion characterization in simulated biofluid J. Biomater. Appl. 21 49–73

[125] Yerramareddy S and Bahadur S 1992 The effect of laser surface treatments on the tribological behavior of Ti-6Al-4V Wear 157 245–62

[126] Biswas A, Li L, Maity T K, Chatterjee U, Mordike B L, Manna I and Majumdar J D 2007 Laser surface treatment of Ti-6Al-4V for bio-implant application Lasers Eng. 17 59–73

[127] Jamshidinia M, Atabaki M M, Zahiri M, Kelly S, Sadek A and Kovacevic R 2015 Microstructural modification of Ti-6Al-4V by using an in-situ printed heat sink in electron beam melting. (EBM) J. Mater. Process. Technol. 226 264–71

[128] Rao X, Chu C L and Zheng Y Y 2014 Phase composition, microstructure, and mechanical properties of porous Ti-Nb-Zr alloys prepared by a two-step foaming powder metallurgy method J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 34 27–36

[129] Bandyopadhyay A, Espana F, Balla V K, Bose S, Ohgami Y and Davies N M 2010 Influence of porosity on mechanical properties and in vivo response of Ti6Al4V implants Acta Biomater. 6 1640–8

[130] Li Y H, Rong L J and Li Y Y 2002 Compressive property of porous NiTi alloy synthesized by combustion synthesis J. Alloys Compd. 345 271–4

[131] Nomura N, Kohama T, Oh I H, Hanada S, Chiba A, Kanehira M and Sasaki K 2005 Mechanical properties of porous Ti-15Mo-5Zr-3Al compacts prepared by powder sintering Mater. Sci. Eng. C 25 330–5

[132] Wen C E, Mabuchi M, Yamada Y, Shimojima K, Chino Y and Asahina T 2001 Processing of biocompatible porous Ti and Mg Scr. Mater. 45 1147–53

[133] Wang X J, Li Y C, Xiong J Y, Hodgson P D and Wen C E 2009 Porous TiNbZr alloy scaffolds for biomedical applications Acta Biomater. 5 3616–24

[134] Bandyopadhyay A, Mitra I, Goodman S B, Kumar M and Bose S 2023 Improving biocompatibility for next generation of metallic implants Prog. Mater. Sci. 133 101053

[135] Roy S, Khutia N, Das D, Das M, Balla V K, Bandyopadhyay A and Chowdhury A R 2016 Understanding compressive deformation behavior of porous Ti using finite element analysis Mater. Sci. Eng. C 64 436–43

[136] Bansiddhi A, Sargeant T D, Stupp S I and Dunand D C 2008 Porous NiTi for bone implants: a review Acta Biomater. 4 773–82

[137] Chu C L, Chung C Y, Lin P H and Wang S D 2004 Fabrication of porous NiTi shape memory alloy for hard tissue implants by combustion synthesis Mater. Sci. Eng. A 366 114–9

[138] Greiner C, Oppenheimer S M and Dunand D C 2005 High strength, low stiffness, porous NiTi with superelastic properties Acta Biomater. 1 705–16

[139] Krishna B V, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2009 Fabrication of porous NiTi shape memory alloy structures using laser engineered net shaping J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 89B 481–90

[140] ZhuSL,YangXJ,FuDH,ZhangLY, LiCY and Cui Z D 2005 Stress-strain behavior of porous NiTi alloys prepared by powders sintering Mater. Sci. Eng. A 408 264–8

[141] LeeDG,LeeYH,LeeS,LeeCSandHurSM2004 Dynamic deformation behavior and ballistic impact properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy having equiaxed and bimodal microstructures Metall. Mater. Trans. A 35 3103–12

[142] da Silva M G and Ramesh K T 1997 The rate-dependent deformation and localization of fully dense and porous Ti-6Al-4V Mater. Sci. Eng. A 232 11–22

[143] Balla V K, Martinez S, Rogoza B T, Livingston C, Venkateswaran D, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2011 Quasi-static torsional deformation behavior of porous Ti6Al4V alloy Mater. Sci. Eng. C 31 945–9

[144] Guden M, Celik E, Akar E and Cetiner S 2005 Compression testing of a sintered Ti6Al4V powder compact for biomedical applications Mater. Charact. 54 399–408

[145] Biswas N, Ding J L, Balla V K, Field D P and Bandyopadhyay A 2012 Deformation and fracture behavior of laser processed dense and porous Ti6Al4V alloy under static and dynamic loading Mater. Sci. Eng. A 549 213–21

[146] Tuncer N and Arslan G 2009 Designing compressive properties of titanium foams J. Mater. Sci. 44 1477–84

[147] Biswas N and Ding J L 2015 Numerical study of the deformation and fracture behavior of porous Ti6Al4V alloy under static and dynamic loading Int. J. Impact Eng. 82 89–102

[148] Verleysen P and Peirs J 2017 Quasi-static and high strain rate fracture behaviour of Ti6Al4V Int. J. Impact Eng. 108 370–88

[149] Yavari S A, Wauthle R, van der Stok J, Riemslag A C, Janssen M, Mulier M, Kruth J P, Schrooten J, Weinans H and Zadpoor A A 2013 Fatigue behavior of porous biomaterials manufactured using selective laser melting Mater. Sci. Eng. C 33 4849–58

[150] Sterling A J, Torries B, Shamsaei N, Thompson S M and Seely D W 2016 Fatigue behavior and failure mechanisms of direct laser deposited Ti-6Al-4V Mater. Sci. Eng. A 655 100–12

[151] Bernard S, Balla V K, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2011 Rotating bending fatigue response of laser processed porous NiTi alloy Mater. Sci. Eng. C 31 815–20

[152] Liu Y J, Li S J, Zhang L C, Hao Y L and Sercombe T B 2018 Early plastic deformation behaviour and energy absorption in porous β-type biomedical titanium produced by selective laser melting Scr. Mater. 153 99–103

[153] LiuYJ,WangHL,LiSJ,WangSG,WangWJ,HouWT, Hao Y L, Yang R and Zhang L C 2017 Compressive and fatigue behavior of beta-type titanium porous structures fabricated by electron beam melting Acta Mater. 126 58–66

[154] Afrouzian A, Avila J D and Bandyopadhyay A 2021 Biotribocorrosion of 3D-printed silica-coated Ti6Al4V for load-bearing implants J. Mater. Res. 36 3974–84

[155] Avila J D, Alrawahi Z, Bose S and Bandyopadhyay A 2020 Additively Manufactured Ti6Al4V-Si-Hydroxyapatite composites for articulating surfaces of load-bearing implants Addit. Manuf. 34 101241

[156] Magar H S, Hassan R Y A and Mulchandani A 2021 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS): principles, construction, and biosensing applications Sensors 21 6578

[157] Bandyopadhyay A, Avila J D, Mitra I and Bose S 2022 Additive manufacturing of cobalt-chromium alloy biomedical devices Additive Manufacturing in Biomedical Applications ed E J Narayan (Russell Township, OH: ASM International) pp 176–91

[158] Lutz J, Díaz C, García J A, Blawert C and M.ndl S 2011 Corrosion behaviour of medical CoCr alloy after nitrogen plasma immersion ion implantation Surf. Coat. Technol. 205 3043–9

[159] Lab S L 2015 Toxicity (available at: www.sciencelearn.org. nz/resources/1540-toxicity)

[160] Department of Health 2013 What you know can help you—an introduction to toxic substances (available at: www.health.ny.gov/environmental/chemicals/ toxic–substances.htm)

[161] Jaishankar M, Tseten T, Anbalagan N, Mathew B B and Beeregowda K N 2014 Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals Interdiscip. Toxicol. 7 60–72

[162] Plum L M, Rink L and Haase H 2010 The essential toxin: impact of zinc on human health Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 7 1342–65

[163] Egorova K S and Ananikov V P 2017 Toxicity of metal compounds: knowledge and myths Organometallics 36 4071–90

[164] Little N, Rogers B and Flannery M 2011 Bone formation, remodelling and healing Surgery 29 141–5

[165] O’Brien F J 2011 Biomaterials & scaffolds for tissue engineering Mater. Today 14 88–95

[166] Terrier C S P and Gasque P 2017 Bone responses in health and infectious diseases: a focus on osteoblasts J. Infect. 75 281–92

[167] Bundy K J 2008 Biomaterials and the chemical environment of the body Joint Replacement Technology ed P A Revell (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 56–80

[168] Armas L A G, Lappe J M and Heaney R P 2010 Calcium, bone strength and fractures Osteoporosis in Men: The Effects of Gender on Skeletal Health 2nd edn ed E S Orwoll, J P Bilezikian and D Vanderschueren (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 235–41

[169] Ataee A, Li Y C, Fraser D, Song G S and Wen C E 2018 Anisotropic Ti-6Al-4V gyroid scaffolds manufactured by electron beam melting (EBM) for bone implant applications Mater. Des. 137 345–54

[170] Moravej M and Mantovani D 2011 Biodegradable metals for cardiovascular stent application: interests and new opportunities Int. J. Mol. Sci. 12 4250–70

[171] Karageorgiou V and Kaplan D 2005 Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis Biomaterials 26 5474–91

[172] Keaveny T M, Morgan E F, Niebur G L and Yeh O C 2001 Biomechanics of trabecular bone Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 3 307–33

[173] Renders G A P, Mulder L, Van Ruijven L J and Van Eijden T M G J 2007 Porosity of human mandibular condylar bone J. Anat. 210 239–48

[174] Liu Y, Rath B, Tingart M and Eschweiler J 2020 Role of implants surface modification in osseointegration: a systematic review J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 108 470–84

[175] Wieding J, Lindner T, Bergschmidt P and Bader R 2015 Biomechanical stability of novel mechanically adapted open-porous titanium scaffolds in metatarsal bone defects of sheep Biomaterials 46 35–47

[176] Wieding J, Jonitz A and Bader R 2012 The effect of structural design on mechanical properties and cellular response of additive manufactured titanium scaffolds Materials 5 1336–47

[177] Vahidgolpayegani A, Wen C, Hodgson P and Li Y 2017 Production methods and characterization of porous Mg and Mg alloys for biomedical applications Metallic Foam Bone: Processing, Modification and Characterization and Properties ed C E Wen (Amsterdam: Elsevier) pp 25–82

[178] Torres-Sanchez C, Al Mushref F R A, Norrito M, Yendall K, Liu Y and Conway P P 2017 The effect of pore size and porosity on mechanical properties and biological response of porous titanium scaffolds Mater. Sci. Eng. C 77 219–28

[179] Rengier F, Mehndiratta A, von Tengg-kobligk H, Zechmann C M, Unterhinninghofen R, Kauczor H U and Giesel F L 2010 3D printing based on imaging data: review of medical applications Int. J. Comput. Assist. Radiol. Surg. 5 335–41

[180] LanQ,ChenAL,ZhangT, LiGW, ZhuQ,Fan XM, MaC and Xu T 2016 Development of three-dimensional printed craniocerebral models for simulated neurosurgery World Neurosurg. 91 434–42

[181] Bak D 2003 Rapid prototyping or rapid production? 3D printing processes move industry towards the latter Assem. Autom. 23 340–5

[182] Kulkarni P, Marsan A and Dutta D 2000 A review of process planning techniques in layered manufacturing. Rapid Prototyp. J. 6 18–35

[183] Fan HB,FuJ,LiXD,PeiYJ,LiXK,PeiGXandGuoZ 2015 Implantation of customized 3D printed titanium prosthesis in limb salvage surgery: a case series and review of the literature World J. Surg. Oncol. 13 308

[184] Donate R, Monzón M and Alemán-Domínguez M E 2020 Additive manufacturing of PLA-based scaffolds intended for bone regeneration and strategies to improve their biological properties e-Polymers 20 571–99

[185] Hrabe N W, Heinl P, Bordia R K, K.rner C and Fernandes R J 2013 Maintenance of a bone collagen phenotype by osteoblast-like cells in 3D periodic porous titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) structures fabricated by selective electron beam melting Connect. Tissue Res. 54 351–60

[186] Tamimi F, Torres J, Al-Abedalla K, Lopez-Cabarcos E, Alkhraisat M H, Bassett D C, Gbureck U and Barralet J E 2014 Osseointegration of dental implants in 3D-printed synthetic onlay grafts customized according to bone metabolic activity in recipient site Biomaterials 35 5436–45

[187] Kumar A, Nune K C, Murr L E and Misra R D K 2016 Biocompatibility and mechanical behaviour of three-dimensional scaffolds for biomedical devices: process–structure–property paradigm Int. Mater. Rev. 61 20–45

[188] Ide Y, Nayar S, Logan H, Gallagher B and Wolfaardt J 2017 The effect of the angle of acuteness of additive manufactured models and the direction of printing on the dimensional fidelity: clinical implications Odontology 105 108–15

[189] Lin W S, Starr T L, Harris B T, Zandinejad A and Morton D 2013 Additive manufacturing technology (direct metal laser sintering) as a novel approach to fabricate functionally graded titanium implants: preliminary investigation of fabrication parameters Int. J. Oral Maxillofac. Implants 28 1490–5

[190] Ouyang P R, Dong H, He X J, Cai X, Wang Y B, Li J L, Li H P and Jin Z M 2019 Hydromechanical mechanism behind the effect of pore size of porous titanium scaffolds on osteoblast response and bone ingrowth Mater. Des. 183 108151

[191] Shah F A, Snis A, Matic A, Thomsen P and Palmquist A 2016 3D printed Ti6Al4V implant surface promotes bone maturation and retains a higher density of less aged osteocytes at the bone-implant interface Acta Biomater. 30 357–67

[192] Wauthle R, van der Stok J, Yavari S A, Van Humbeeck J, Kruth J P, Zadpoor A A, Weinans H, Mulier M and Schrooten J 2015 Additively manufactured porous tantalum implants Acta Biomater. 14 217–25

[193] Regis M, Marin E, Fedrizzi L and Pressacco M 2015 Additive manufacturing of trabecular titanium orthopedic implants MRS Bull. 40 137–44

[194] Chang B, Song W, Han T X, Yan J, Li F P, Zhao L Z, Kou H C and Zhang Y M 2016 Influence of pore size of porous titanium fabricated by vacuum diffusion bonding of titanium meshes on cell penetration and bone ingrowth Acta Biomater. 33 311–21

[195] Matena J, Petersen S, Gieseke M, Kampmann A, Teske M, Beyerbach M, Escobar H M, Haferkamp H, Gellrich N C and Nolte I 2015 SLM produced porous titanium implant improvements for enhanced vascularization and osteoblast seeding Int. J. Mol. Sci. 16 7478–92

[196] Van Cleynenbreugel T, Schrooten J, Van Oosterwyck H and Vander Sloten J 2006 Micro-CT-based screening of biomechanical and structural properties of bone tissue engineering scaffolds Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 44 517–25

[197] Cheng A, Humayun A, Cohen D J, Boyan B D and Schwartz Z 2014 Additively manufactured 3D porous Ti-6Al-4V constructs mimic trabecular bone structure and regulate osteoblast proliferation, differentiation and local factor production in a porosity and surface roughness dependent manner Biofabrication 6 045007

[198] Van der Stok J et al 2013 Selective laser melting-produced porous titanium scaffolds regenerate bone in critical size cortical bone defects J. Orthop. Res. 31 792–9

[199] WangH,SuKX,SuLZ,LiangPP, JiPandWangC2019 Comparison of 3D-printed porous tantalum and titanium scaffolds on osteointegration and osteogenesis Mater. Sci. Eng. C 104 109908

[200] Markhoff J, Wieding J, Weissmann V, Pasold J, Jonitz-Heincke A and Bader R 2015 Influence of different three-dimensional open porous titanium scaffold designs on human osteoblasts behavior in static and dynamic cell investigations Materials 8 5490–507

[201] Prananingrum W, Naito Y, Galli S, Bae J, Sekine K, Hamada K, Tomotake Y, Wennerberg A, Jimbo R and Ichikawa T 2016 Bone ingrowth of various porous titanium scaffolds produced by a moldless and space holder technique: an in vivo study in rabbits Biomed. Mater. 11 015012

[202] Loh Q L and Choong C 2013 Three-dimensional scaffolds for tissue engineering applications: role of porosity and pore size Tissue Eng. B 19 485–502

[203] Li J P, Habibovic P, van den Doel M, Wilson C E, de Wijn J R, van Blitterswijk C A and de Groot K 2007 Bone ingrowth in porous titanium implants produced by 3D fiber deposition Biomaterials 28 2810–20

[204] Biemond J E, Aquarius R, Verdonschot N and Buma P 2011 Frictional and bone ingrowth properties of engineered surface topographies produced by electron beam technology Arch. Orthop. Trauma Surg. 131 711–8

[205] Otsuki B, Takemoto M, Fujibayashi S, Neo M, Kokubo T and Nakamura T 2006 Pore throat size and connectivity determine bone and tissue ingrowth into porous implants: three-dimensional micro-CT based structural analyses of porous bioactive titanium implants Biomaterials 27 5892–900

[206] Rumpler M, Woesz A, Dunlop J W C, Van Dongen J T and Fratzl P 2008 The effect of geometry on three-dimensional tissue growth J. R. Soc. Interface 5 1173–80

[207] Marin E, Fusi S, Pressacco M, Paussa L and Fedrizzi L 2010 Characterization of cellular solids in Ti6Al4V for orthopaedic implant applications: trabecular titanium J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 3 373–81

[208] Van Bael S, Chai Y C, Truscello S, Moesen M, Kerckhofs G, Van Oosterwyck H, Kruth J P and Schrooten J 2012 The effect of pore geometry on the in vitro biological behavior of human periosteum-derived cells seeded on selective laser-melted Ti6Al4V bone scaffolds Acta Biomater. 8 2824–34

[209] Smith J O, Sengers B G, Aarvold A, Tayton E R, Dunlop D G and Oreffo R O C 2014 Tantalum trabecular metal—addition of human skeletal cells to enhance bone implant interface strength and clinical application J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 8 304–13

[210] Wang Q, Zhang H, Gan H Q, Wang H, Li Q J and Wang Z Q 2018 Application of combined porous tantalum scaffolds loaded with bone morphogenetic protein 7 to repair of osteochondral defect in rabbits Int. Orthop. 42 1437–48

[211] Vanderleyden E, Van Bael S, Chai Y C, Kruth J P, Schrooten J and Dubruel P 2014 Gelatin functionalised porous titanium alloy implants for orthopaedic applications Mater. Sci. Eng. C 42 396–404

[212] Wang H, Li Q J, Wang Q, Zhang H, Shi W, Gan H Q, Song H P and Wang Z Q 2017 Enhanced repair of segmental bone defects in rabbit radius by porous tantalum scaffolds modified with the RGD peptide J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 28 50

[213] Ortiz-Hernandez M et al 2018 Two different strategies to enhance osseointegration in porous titanium: inorganic thermo-chemical treatment versus organic coating by peptide adsorption Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19 2574

[214] Liu H, Li W, Liu C, Tan J, Wang H, Hai B, Cai H, Leng H J, Liu Z J and Song C L 2016 Incorporating simvastatin/poloxamer 407 hydrogel into 3D-printed porous Ti6Al4V scaffolds for the promotion of angiogenesis, osseointegration and bone ingrowth Biofabrication 8 045012

[215] Nazarian A, Stauber M and Müller R 2005 Design and implementation of a novel mechanical testing system for cellular solids J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 73B 400–11

[216] Bose S, Robertson S F and Bandyopadhyay A 2018 Surface modification of biomaterials and biomedical devices using additive manufacturing Acta Biomater. 66 6–22

[217] Zhang L, Song B, Choi S K and Shi Y S 2021 A topology strategy to reduce stress shielding of additively manufactured porous metallic biomaterials Int. J. Mech. Sci. 197 106331

[218] Tan C L, Deng C, Li S, Abena A, Jamshidi P, Essa K, Wu LK, XuGH, AttallahM M andLiu J 2022 Mechanical property and biological behaviour of additive manufactured TiNi functionally graded lattice structure Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 4 045003